Toxic aldehyde related diseases and treatment

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides for the treatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of a disease, disorder, or condition in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis, including ocular disorders, skin disorders, conditions associated with injurious effects from blister agents, and autoimmune, inflammatory, neurological and cardiovascular diseases by the use of a primary amine to scavenge toxic aldehydes, such as MDA and HNE.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Ser. No.61/755,613, filed on Jan. 23, 2013, and U.S. Ser. No. 61/901,796, filedon Nov. 8, 2013, the contents of each of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Metabolic and inflammatory processes in cells generate toxic aldehydes,such as malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxyl-2-nonenal (4HNE), and8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdg). These aldehydes are highly reactiveto proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and DNA, leading to chemicallymodified biological molecules, activation of inflammatory mediators suchas NF-kappaB, and damages in diverse organs. For example, retinaldehydecan react with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) to form a highly toxiccompound called A2E, which is a component of lipofuscin believed to beinvolved in the development and progression of Age Related MacularDegeneration (AMD). Many bodily defense mechanisms function to remove orlower the levels of toxic aldehydes. Novel small molecule therapeuticscan be used to scavenge “escaped” retinaldehyde in the retina, thusreducing A2E formation and lessening the risk of AMD (Jordan et al.(2006)).

Aldehydes are implicated in diverse pathological conditions such as dryeye, cataracts, keratoconus, Fuch's endothelial dystrophy in the cornea,uveitis, allergic conjunctivitis, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid,conditions associated with photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) healing orother corneal healing, conditions associated with tear lipid degradationor lacrimal gland dysfunction, inflammatory ocular conditions such asocular rosacea (with or without meibomian gland dysfunction), andnon-ocular disorders or conditions such as skin cancer, psoriasis,contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, acne vulgaris, Sjogren-LarssonSyndrome, ischemic-reperfusion injury, inflammation, diabetes,neurodegeneration (e.g., Parkinson's disease), scleroderma, amyotrophiclateral sclerosis, autoimmune disorders (e.g., lupus), cardiovasculardisorders (e.g., atherosclerosis), and conditions associated with theinjurious effects of blister agents (Negre-Salvagre et al. (2008),Nakamura et al. (2007), Batista et al. (2012), Kenney et al. (2003), IntJ Dermatol 43: 494 (2004), Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48: 1552 (2007),Graefe's Clin Exp Ophthalmol 233: 694 (1994), Molecular Vision 18: 194(2012)). Reducing or eliminating aldehydes should thus ameliorate thesymptoms and slow the progression of these pathological conditions.

MDA, HNE and other toxic aldehydes are generated by a myriad ofmetabolic mechanisms involving: fatty alcohols, sphingolipids,glycolipids, phytol, fatty acids, arachadonic acid metabolism (Rizzo(2007)), polyamine metabolism (Wood et al. (2006)), lipid peroxidation,oxidative metabolism (Buddi et al. (2002), Zhou et al. (2005)), andglucose metabolism (Pozzi et al. (2009)). Aldehydes can cross link withprimary amino groups and other chemical moieties on proteins,phospholipids, carbohydrates, and DNA, leading in many cases to toxicconsequences, such as mutagenesis and carcinogenesis (Marnett (2002)).MDA is associated with diseased corneas, keratoconus, bullous and otherkeratopathy, and Fuch's endothelial dystrophy corneas (Buddi et al.(2002)). Also, skin disorders, e.g., Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome, arelikely connected with the accumulation of fatty aldehydes such asoctadecanal and hexadecanal (Rizzo et al. (2010)). Further, increasedlipid peroxidation and resultant aldehyde generation are associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents (Sciuto et al. (2004) and Pal et al.(2009)).

There has been no suggestion in the art for treating the variousconditions associated with toxic aldehydes by the administration ofsmall molecule therapeutics acting as a scavenger for aldehydes, such asMDA and/or HNE. Thus, there is a need for treating, preventing, and/orreducing a risk of a disease or disorder in which aldehyde toxicity isimplicated in the pathogenesis. The present invention addresses such aneed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method of treating, preventing, and/orreducing a risk of a disease, disorder, or condition in which aldehydetoxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis, by administering a compound(e.g., a primary amine compound) described herein. The invention alsorelates to the use of a compound (e.g., a primary amine compound)described herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of a disease, disorder, orcondition in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis;or the use of a compound (e.g., a primary amine compound) describedherein in treating, preventing, and/or reducing a risk of a disease,disorder, or condition in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in thepathogenesis.

In one embodiment, a disease, disorder, or condition in which aldehydetoxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis is an ocular disease,disorder, or condition, including, but not limited to, a corneal disease(e.g., dry eye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus, bullous and otherkeratopathy, and Fuch's endothelial dystrophy), other ocular disordersor conditions (e.g., allergic conjunctivitis, ocular cicatricialpemphigoid, conditions associated with PRK healing and other cornealhealing, and conditions associated with tear lipid degradation orlacrimal gland dysfunction), and other ocular conditions associated withhigh aldehyde levels as a result of inflammation (e.g., uveitis,scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, and ocular rosacea (with orwithout meibomian gland dysfunction)).

In a second embodiment, a disease, disorder, or condition in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis is a skin disorderor condition or a cosmetic indication. For example, the disease,disorder, or condition includes, but is not limited to, psoriasis,scleroderma, topical (discoid) lupus, contact dermatitis, atopicdermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris,Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis, and the cosmeticindication is solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness,eczema, smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and askin condition associated burn and/or wound.

In a third embodiment, a disease, disorder, or condition in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis is a conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents.

In a fourth embodiment, a disease, disorder, or condition in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis is an autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological disease.For example, the disease, disorder, or condition includes, but is notlimited to, lupus, scleroderma, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease,sepsis, atherosclerosis, ischemic-reperfusion injury, Parkinson'sdisease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and fibrotic diseases.

A compound (e.g., a primary amine compound) described herein can beadministered topically or systemically, as described in detail below.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. In the case of conflict, thepresent specification, including definitions, will control. In thespecification, the singular forms also include the plural unless thecontext clearly dictates otherwise. Although methods and materialssimilar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in thepractice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods andmaterials are described below. All publications, patent applications,patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated byreference. The references cited herein are not admitted to be prior artto the claimed invention. In addition, the materials, methods, andexamples are illustrative only and are not intended to be limiting.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. A plot showing that Compound 9 rapidly reacts with and traps thetwo most common pathogenic aldehydes: malondialdehyde (MDA) and4-hydroxynonenal (HNE)

FIG. 2. Bar graphs showing that Compound 9 prevents aldehyde-mediatedcell death in neurons

FIG. 3. A bar graph showing broad downregulation of inflammatorycytokines by a single dose of Compound 9

FIG. 4. Bar graphs showing the anti-inflammatory profile of asingle-dose of Compound 9 in response to LPS treatment

FIG. 5. Bar graphs showing the efficacy of a single dose of Compound 9in (A) contact dermatitis and (B) allergic dermatitis

FIG. 6. (A) a plot and a table showing the mucositis score over time inhamsters subject to 40 Gy irradiation and treated with or withoutCompound 9, (B) photographs of cheeks of hamsters subject to 40 Gyirradiation and treated with or without Compound 9

FIG. 7. A bar plot showing that Compound 9 treatment diminishesradiation induced fibrosis in hamsters subject to 40 Gy irradiation

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to compounds (e.g., a primary amine compound) forthe treatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of diseases,disorders, or conditions in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in thepathogenesis.

Examples of the diseases, disorders, or conditions in which aldehydetoxicity is implicated include an ocular disease, disorder, orcondition, including, but not limited to, a corneal disease (e.g., dryeye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus, bullous and other keratopathy, andFuch's endothelial dystrophy), other ocular disorders or conditions(e.g., allergic conjunctivitis, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid,conditions associated with PRK healing and other corneal healing, andconditions associated with tear lipid degradation or lacrimal glanddysfunction), and other ocular conditions associated with high aldehydelevels as a result of inflammation (e.g., uveitis, scleritis, ocularStevens Johnson Syndrome, ocular rosacea (with or without meibomiangland dysfunction)). In one example, the ocular disease, disorder, orcondition is not macular degeneration, such as age-related maculardegeneration (“AMD”), or Stargardt's disease. In a further example, theocular disease, disorder, or condition is dry eye syndrome, ocularrosacea, or uveitis.

Examples of the diseases, disorders, conditions, or indications in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated also include non-ocular disorders,including psoriasis, topical (discoid) lupus, contact dermatitis, atopicdermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris,Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis, solar elastosis/wrinkles,skin tone firmness, puffiness, eczema, smoke or irritant induced skinchanges, dermal incision, a skin condition associated burn and/or wound,lupus, scleroderma, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, sepsis,atherosclerosis, ischemic-reperfusion injury, Parkinson's disease,Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and fibrotic diseases. In a furtherexample, the non-ocular disorder is a skin disease, disorder, orcondition selected from contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergicdermatitis, and radiation dermatitis. In another example, the non-oculardisorder is a skin disease, disorder, or condition selected fromSjogren-Larsson Syndrome and a cosmetic indication associated burnand/or wound.

Examples of the diseases, disorders, or conditions in which aldehydetoxicity is implicated further include conditions associated with thetoxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents. Thecompounds described herein reduce or eliminate toxic aldehydes and thustreat, prevent, and/or reduce a risk of these diseases or disorders.

Certain compounds comprising primary amine groups (e.g., compoundsdescribed herein) are found to be useful in scavenging toxic aldehydes,such as MDA and HNE. The compounds described herein undergo a Schiffbase condensation with MDA, HNE, or other toxic aldehydes, and form acomplex with the aldehydes in an energetically favorable reaction, thusreducing or eliminating aldehydes available for reaction with a protein,lipid, carbohydrate, or DNA. Importantly, compounds described herein canreact with aldehydes to form a compound having a closed-ring structurethat contains the aldehydes, thus trapping the aldehydes and preventingthe aldehydes from being released back into the cellular milieu. Forexample, Compound 9,

disclosed in PCT publication WO 2006/127945, rapidly traps MDA and HNE,even in the presence of peptides and phospholipids, which are thebiological targets of these aldehydes.

In addition, primary amine compounds described in US 2012/0295895 andMaeda et al. (2012), the contents of each of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety, can reduce levels of alltrans-retinal and prevent accumulation of conjugation products in theretina. The primary compounds described therein are thus useful inscavenging and trapping aldehydes, such as MDA and HNE. For example,compounds disclosed therein with an optical coherence tomography (OCT)grade of 2 or less are useful in scavenging and trapping aldehydes, suchas MDA and HNE. In a further example, compounds disclosed therein withan OCT grade of 1 or less are useful in scavenging and trappingaldehydes, such as MDA and HNE. Particular examples include3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid (both stereoisomers),6-(trifluromethoxy)benzothiazol-2-amine, and3-ethyl-5-methyl-2-(aminoethoxy)methyl-4-(2-chlorophenyl)-6-methyl-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylate.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,982,071, the contents of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entirety, describes certain alkoxy derivativescontaining a primary amine group. Those compounds are useful in thetreatment of certain ophthalmic disorders, specifically AMD andStargardt's disease. Compounds described in the 071 patent, particularlyCompound (11)

are found to be useful in treating a disease, disorder, or conditiondescribed herein, such as an ocular disease, disorder, or condition(e.g., dry eye syndrome, conditions associated with PRK or other cornealhealing, uveitis, scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson syndrome, ocularrosacea (with or without meibomian gland dysfunction), cataracts,keratoconus, bullous and other keratopathy, and endothelial dystrophyand related disorders).

Further, compounds described in PCT Application Nos. PCT/US2013/076592and PCT/US2014/012356, the contents of each of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety, are effective in effective inscavenging and trapping MDA and HNE and other toxic aldehydes. Thosecompounds are found to be useful in treating a disease, disorder, orcondition described herein, such as an ocular disease, disorder, orcondition (e.g., dry eye syndrome, conditions associated with PRK orother corneal healing, uveitis, scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnsonsyndrome, ocular rosacea (with or without meibomian gland dysfunction),cataracts, keratoconus, bullous and other keratopathy, and endothelialdystrophy and related disorders).

In one embodiment, the invention relates to the treatment, prevention,and/or reduction of a risk of an ocular disease, disorder, or conditionin which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis, comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof a compound described herein.The ocular disease, disorder, or condition includes, but is not limitedto, a corneal disease (e.g., dry eye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus,bullous and other keratopathy, and Fuch's endothelial dystrophy in thecornea), other ocular disorders or conditions (e.g., allergicconjunctivitis, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, conditions associatedwith PRK healing and other corneal healing, and conditions associatedwith tear lipid degradation or lacrimal gland dysfunction), and otherocular conditions where inflammation leads to high aldehyde levels(e.g., uveitis, scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, ocularrosacea (with or without meibomian gland dysfunction)). The oculardisease, disorder, or condition does not include macular degeneration,such as AMD, or Stargardt's disease. In one illustration, in the oculardisease, disorder, or condition, the amount or concentration of MDA orHNE is increased in the ocular tissues or cells. For example, the amountor concentration of aldehydes (e.g., MDA or HNE) is increased for atleast 1.1 fold, 1.2 fold, 1.3 fold, 1.4 fold, 1.5 fold, 2 fold, 2.5fold, 5 fold, 10 fold as compared to that in normal ocular tissues orcells. Compounds described herein, such as Compound 9, decrease aldehyde(e.g., MDA and HNE) concentration in a time-dependent manner. The amountor concentration of aldehydes (e.g., MDA or HNE) can be measured bymethods or techniques known in the art, such as those described inTukozkan et al., Furat Tip Dergisi 11: 88-92 (2006).

In one class, the ocular disease, disorder, or condition is dry eyesyndrome. In a second class, the ocular disease, disorder, or conditionis a condition associated with PRK healing and other corneal healing.For example, the invention is directed to advancing PRK healing or othercorneal healing, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof acompound described herein. In a third class, the ocular disease,disorder, or condition is an ocular condition associated with highaldehyde levels as a result of inflammation (e.g., uveitis, scleritis,ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, and ocular rosacea (with or withoutmeibomian gland dysfunction). In a fourth class, the ocular disease,disorder, or condition is keratoconus, cataracts, bullous and otherkeratopathy, Fuchs' endothelial dystrophy, ocular cicatricialpemphigoid, or allergic conjunctivitis. The compound described hereinmay be administered topically or systemically, as described hereinbelow.

In a first aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (I) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound of each of the various illustrations and/or examples of thecompounds of formula (I) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administeringCompound (9):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (II) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound of each of the various illustrations and/or examples of thecompounds of formula (II) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. Preferably, thecompound is (S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid or(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts or racemic mixtures thereof.

In a third aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering Compound (11):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one illustration of this aspect, the compound is:

In a fourth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of any one of formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound of each of the various illustrations and/or examples of thecompounds of each of formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound selected from Compounds (1)-(8):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferably, the compoundis Compound (1) or (2).

In another specific exemplification, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering Compound (10):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fifth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the oculardiseases, disorders, or conditions described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of formula (IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (IV) is described in detail below.

In one class of this aspect, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound of formula (IVa) or formula (IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IVa) and (IVb) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound of each of the various illustrations and/or examples of thecompounds of each of formula (IV), (IVa), and (IVb) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the ocular diseases,disorders, or conditions described herein, comprising administering acompound selected from Compounds (12)-(18):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second embodiment, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of a skin disorder or conditionor a cosmetic indication, in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated inthe pathogenesis, comprising administering to a subject in need thereofa compound described herein. The skin disorder or condition includes,but is not limited to, psoriasis, scleroderma, topical (discoid) lupus,contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiationdermatitis, acne vulgaris, and Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and otherichthyosis, and the cosmetic indication is solar elastosis/wrinkles,skin tone firmness, puffiness, eczema, smoke or irritant induced skinchanges, dermal incision, or a skin condition associated burn and/orwound.

Various skin disorders or conditions, such as atopic dermatitis, topical(discoid) lupus, psoriasis and scleroderma, are characterized by highMDA and HNE levels (Br J Dermatol 149: 248 (2003); JEADV 26: 833 (2012);Clin Rheumatol 25: 320 (2006)). In addition, ichthyosis characteristicof the Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome (SLS) originates from accumulation offatty aldehydes, which disrupts the normal function and secretion oflamellar bodies (LB) and leads to intercellular lipid deposits in theStrateum Corneum (SC) and a defective water barrier in the skin layer(W. B. Rizzo et al. (2010)). The enzyme, fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase,that metabolizes aldehydes is dysfunctional in SLS patients. Thus,compounds that reduce or eliminate aldehydes, such as the compoundsdescribed herein, can be used to treat, prevent, and/or reduction of arisk of skin disorders or conditions in which aldehyde toxicity isimplicated in the pathogenesis, such as those described herein.Furthermore, with an improvement to the water barrier and prevention ofaldehyde-mediated inflammation (including fibrosis and elastosis(Chairpotto et al. (2005)), many cosmetic indications, such as solarelastosis/wrinkles, skin tone, firmness (puffiness), eczema, smoke orirritant induced skin changes and dermal incision cosmesis, and skinconditions associated with burn and/or wound can be treated using themethod of the invention. For example, Compound (9) is effective againstcontact dermatitis in a phorbol myristate acetate model and allergicdermatitis in an oxazolone model.

In one class, the skin disease, disorder, or condition is psoriasis,scleroderma, topical (discoid) lupus, contact dermatitis, atopicdermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris, orSjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis. In one exemplification,the skin disease, disorder, or condition is contact dermatitis, atopicdermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, orSjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis. In a second class, thecosmetic indication is solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness,puffiness, eczema, smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermalincision, or a skin condition associated burn and/or wound.

In a first aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering a compound of formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (I) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of each of the various illustrations and/orexamples of the compounds of formula (I) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering Compound (9):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering a compound of formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (II) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of each of the various illustrations and/orexamples of the compounds of formula (II) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2.Preferably, the compound is (S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid or(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts or racemic mixtures thereof.

In a third aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering Compound (11):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one illustration of this aspect, the compound is:

In a fourth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering a compound of any one of formulae(IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of each of the various illustrations and/orexamples of the compounds of each of formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) describedherein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound selected from Compounds (1)-(8):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferably, the compoundis Compound (1) or (2).

In another specific exemplification, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering Compound (10):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fifth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skindisorders or conditions or cosmetic indications described herein,comprising administering a compound of formula (IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (IV) is described in detail below.

In one class of this aspect, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of formula (IVa) or formula (IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IVa) and (IVb) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound of each of the various illustrations and/orexamples of the compounds of each of formula (IV), (IVa), and (IVb)described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the skin disorders orconditions or cosmetic indications described herein, comprisingadministering a compound selected from Compounds (12)-(18):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a third embodiment, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of a condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis, comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof a compound described herein.

Blister agents include, but are not limited to, sulfur mustard, nitrogenmustard, and phosgene oxime. Toxic or injurious effects of blisteragents include pain, irritation, and/or tearing in the skin, eye, and/ormucous, and conjunctivitis and/or corneal damage to the eye. Sulfurmustard is the compound bis(2-chlorethyl) sulfide. Nitrogen mustardincludes the compounds bis(2-chlorethyl)ethylamine,bis(2-chlorethyl)methylamine, and tris(2-chlorethyl)amine. Sulfurmustard or its analogs can cause an increase in oxidative stress and inparticular in FINE levels, and by depleting the antioxidant defensesystem and thereby increasing lipid peroxidation, may induce anoxidative stress response and thus increase aldehyde levels (Jafari etal. (2010); Pal et al. (2009)). Antioxidants, such as Silibinin, whenapplied topically, attenuate skin injury induced from exposure to sulfurmustard or its analogs, and increased activities of antioxidant enzymesmay be a compensatory response to reactive oxygen species generated bythe sulfur mustard (Jafari et al. (2010); Tewari-Singh et al. (2012)).Further, intervention to reduce free radical species was an effectivetreatment post exposure for phosgene induced lung injury (Sciuto et al.(2004)). Thus, compounds that reduce or eliminate aldehydes, such ascompounds described herein, can be used to treat, prevent, and/or reducea risk of a condition associated with the toxic effects of blisteragents, such as sulfur mustard, nitrogen mustard, and phosgene oxime.

Alkali agents include, but are not limited to, lime, lye, ammonia, anddrain cleaners. Compounds that reduce or eliminate aldehydes, such ascompounds described herein, can be used to treat, prevent, and/or reducea risk of a condition associated with burns from an alkali agent.

In a first aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering a compound of formula(I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (I) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound of each of thevarious illustrations and/or examples of the compounds of formula (I)described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering Compound (9):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering a compound of formula(II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (II) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound of each of thevarious illustrations and/or examples of the compounds of formula (II)described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound selected from thecompounds listed in Table 2. Preferably, the compound is(S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid or(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts or racemic mixtures thereof.

In a third aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering Compound (11):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one illustration of this aspect, the compound is:

In a fourth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering a compound of any oneof formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound of each of thevarious illustrations and/or examples of the compounds of each offormulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound selected fromCompounds (1)-(8):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferably, the compoundis Compound (1) or (2).

In another specific exemplification, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering Compound (10):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fifth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the conditionassociated with the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkaliagents described herein, comprising administering a compound of formula(IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (IV) is described in detail below.

In one class of this aspect, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound of formula (IVa)or formula (IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IVa) and (IVb) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound of each of thevarious illustrations and/or examples of the compounds of each offormula (IV), (IVa), and (IVb) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of the condition associated withthe toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agentsdescribed herein, comprising administering a compound selected fromCompounds (12)-(18):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fourth embodiment, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of an autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological disease,disorder, or condition, or metabolic syndrome, or diabetes, in whichaldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis, comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof a compound described herein.The autoimmune or immune-mediated disease, disorder, or conditionincludes, but is not limited to, lupus, scleroderma, asthma, chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and rheumatoid arthritis. Theinflammatory disease, disorder, or condition includes, but is notlimited to, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease (e.g.,Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), sepsis, and fibrosis (e.g.,renal, hepatic, pulmonary, and cardiac fibrosis). The cardiovasculardisease, disorder, or condition includes, but is not limited to,atherosclerosis and ischemic-reperfusion injury. The neurologicaldisease, disorder, or condition includes, but is not limited to,Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and the neurological aspects ofSjogren-Larsson Syndrome (cognitive delay and spasticity).

A skilled person would understand that the disease, disorder, orcondition listed herein may involve more than one pathologicalmechanisms. For example, a disease, disorder, or condition listed hereinmay involve dysregulation in the immunological response and inflammatoryresponse. Thus, the above categorization of a disease, disorder, orcondition is not absolute, and the disease, disorder, or condition maybe considered an immunological, an inflammatory, a cardiovascular, aneurological, and/or metabolic disease, disorder, or condition.

Individuals with deficiencies in aldehyde dehydrogenase are found tohave high aldehyde levels and increased risk of Parkinson's disease(PNAS 110:636 (2013)) and Alzheimer's disease (BioChem Biophys ResCommun. 273:192 (2000)). In Parkinson's disease, aldehydes specificallyinterfere with dopamine physiology (Free Radic Biol Med, 51: 1302(2011); Mol Aspects Med, 24: 293 (2003); Brain Res, 1145: 150 (2007)).In addition, aldehydes levels are elevated in multiple sclerosis,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, autoimmune diseases such as lupus,rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, psoriasis, scleroderma, and fibroticdiseases, and increased levels of HNE and MDA are implicated in theprogression of atherosclerosis and diabetes (J. Cell. Mol. Med., 15:1339 (2011); Arthritis Rheum 62: 2064 (2010); Clin Exp Immunol, 101: 233(1995); Int J Rheum Dis, 14: 325 (2011); JEADV 26: 833 (2012); ClinRheumatol 25: 320 (2006); Gut 54: 987 (2005); J Am Soc Nephrol 20: 2119(2009)). MDA is further implicated in the increased formation of foamcells leading to atherosclerosis (Leibundgut et al., Current Opinion inPharmacology 13: 168 (2013)). Also, aldehyde-related toxicity plays animportant role in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory lung diseases,such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Bartoliet al., Mediators of Inflammation 2011, Article 891752). Thus, compoundsthat reduce or eliminate aldehydes, such as compounds described herein,can be used to treat, prevent, and/or reduce a risk of an autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological disease,disorder, or condition, or metabolic syndrome, or diabetes. For example,compounds described herein, such as Compound 9, preventaldehyde-mediated cell death in neurons. Further, compounds describedherein, such as Compound 9, downregulate a broad spectrum ofpro-inflammatory cytokines and/or upregulate anti-inflammatorycytokines, which indicates that compounds described herein are useful intreating inflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis andamyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

In a first aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering a compound offormula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (I) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound of each of the variousillustrations and/or examples of the compounds of formula (I) describedherein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering Compound (9):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering a compound offormula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (II) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound of each of the variousillustrations and/or examples of the compounds of formula (II) describedherein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound selected from the compoundslisted in Table 2. Preferably, the compound is(S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid or(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts or racemic mixtures thereof.

In a third aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering Compound (11):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one illustration of this aspect, the compound is:

In a fourth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering a compound of anyone of formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound of each of the variousillustrations and/or examples of the compounds of each of formulae(IIIa)-(IIIf) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound selected from Compounds(1)-(8):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferably, the compoundis Compound (1) or (2).

In another specific exemplification, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering Compound (10):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fifth aspect of this embodiment, the invention relates to thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of theautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological diseases, disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes,or diabetes described herein, comprising administering a compound offormula (IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formula (IV) is described in detail below.

In one class of this aspect, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound of formula (IVa) or formula(IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of thevariables in formulae (IVa) and (IVb) is described in detail below.

In one exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound of each of the variousillustrations and/or examples of the compounds of each of formula (IV),(IVa), and (IVb) described herein.

In one specific exemplification, the invention relates to the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of each of the autoimmune,immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, or neurological diseases,disorders, or conditions, or metabolic syndromes, or diabetes describedherein, comprising administering a compound selected from Compounds(12)-(18):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Compounds Useful in the Invention

Compounds that can be used in the invention are compounds that containone or more primary amine groups and react with aldehydes (e.g., MDA andFINE) to form a complex, for example, through a Schiff base condensationmechanism. Preferably, the aldehyde complex so formed has a closed-ringstructure, thus preventing the aldehyde from being released from thecomplex and back into the cellular milieu, where the aldehyde can reactwith various cellular targets, such as a protein, lipid, carbohydrate,and DNA, and interfere with numerous normal physiological processes,thus resulting in diseases, disorders, and other undesirable conditions.Thus, compounds that can be used in the invention are compounds whichreact with and thus decrease or eliminate aldehydes (e.g., MDA andFINE). For example, the compounds decrease the amount or concentrationof aldehydes by at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90%,as compared to the amount or concentration of aldehydes in the absenceof the compounds.

In addition, compounds described in the invention may possess activitiesin addition to reacting with aldehydes. In one example, compoundsdescribed herein may affect the expression or amount of chemokines inthe cells. In a further example, compounds described herein maydownregulate a broad spectrum of pro-inflammatory cytokines, includingbut not limited to, IL-5 and IL-1β, IL-12, IL-17, and TNF. In anotherexample, compounds described herein may upregulate anti-inflammatorycytokines, including but not limited to, IL-10. In another example,compounds described herein may downregulate other cytokines involved ininflammation, including but not limited to, eotaxin, IP-10, LIF, MCP-1,MIG, MIP, and RANTES. In another example, compounds described herein mayprevent aldehyde-mediated death of various types of cells, such asneurons.

In one aspect, compounds that can be used in the invention include acompound of formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

X, Y, and Z are each independently N, CH, or C(NH₂), provided that oneof X, Y, and Z is N;

p is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

each R_(B) is independently halogen, hydroxyl, carbamoyl, amino, orunsubstituted or substituted aryl;

R_(A) is

Q_(a) is C₁-C₆ straight chain alkyl; and

R_(a) is unsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈branched alkyl.

In one illustration, R_(a) is C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branchedalkyl substituted with one or more substituents independently selectedfrom alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy,arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate,alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl,alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl,phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, NH₂, alkylamino,dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, alkylarylamino, acylamino,alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl, ureido, amidino,imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfate,alkylsulfinyl, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, trifluoromethyl, azido,heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, and an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety.

In one illustration, R_(B) is aryl substituted with one or moresubstituents independently selected from halogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy,alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy,aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylaminocarbonyl,aralkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,aralkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl,alkylthiocarbonyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, NH₂,alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, alkylarylamino,acylamino, alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl, ureido,amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate,sulfate, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro,trifluoromethyl, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, and an aromatic orheteroaromatic moiety.

In one illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are the compoundswherein X is CH; Z is N; Y is C(NH₂).

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are the compoundswherein p is 1. In another illustration, the compounds of formula (I)are the compounds wherein R_(A) is

In a further illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are thecompounds wherein p is 1 and R_(A) is

In yet a further illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are thecompounds wherein p is 1; R_(A) is

and each Q_(a) is methyl.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are the compoundswherein R_(B) is halogen, hydroxyl, carbamoyl, amino, or aryl.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (I) are the compoundswherein R_(B) is halogen. In a further illustration, the compounds offormula (I) are the compounds wherein p is 1; R_(A) is

and R_(B) is halogen. In yet a further illustration, the compounds offormula (I) are the compounds wherein p is 1; R_(A) is

each Q_(a) is methyl; and R_(B) is halogen. In one exemplification,R_(B) is Cl.

In one exemplification, a compound of formula (I) is Compound (9):

In a second aspect, compounds that can be used in the invention includea compound of formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R_(B1) is unsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈branched alkyl, C₂-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branched alkenyl, C₁-C₆alkoxy, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₁-C₆ alkyl-C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, C₁-C₆alkylphenoxy, phenyl, or substituted phenyl;

R_(B2) is H, unsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆branched alkyl, phenyl, or substituted phenyl; and

R_(B3) is H, unsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₆ straight chain orbranched C₃-C₆ alkyl, or carboxyl.

In one illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B3) is H.

In one illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B2) is H. In another illustration, the compounds of formula(II) are the compounds wherein R_(B2) is unsubstituted C₁-C₆ straightchain alkyl. In a further illustration, the compounds of formula (II)are the compounds wherein R_(B2) is unsubstituted methyl. In anotherillustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compounds whereinR_(B2) is unsubstituted C₃-C₆ branched alkyl. In another illustration,the compounds of formula (II) are the compounds wherein R_(B2) isunsubstituted phenyl.

In one illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branchedalkyl, or C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branched alkyl substituted withone or more substituents independently selected from

-   -   hydroxyl, F, Cl,    -   unsubstituted C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkoxy substituted with        halogen or phenyl,    -   unsubstituted phenyl, phenyl substituted with one or more        substituents independently selected from F, Cl, and        unsubstituted C₁-C₆ alkoxy,    -   unsubstituted phenoxy, and phenoxy substituted with one or more        substituents independently selected from F, Cl, unsubstituted        C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkyl substituted with F or Cl, unsubstituted        C₁-C₆ alkoxy, and nitro.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted C₁-C₆ alkoxy, or C₁-C₆ alkoxysubstituted with F or Cl.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted phenyl, or phenyl substituted with oneor more substituents independently selected from F, Cl, unsubstitutedC₁-C₆ alkoxy, and nitro.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted phenoxy, or phenoxy substituted with oneor more substituents independently selected from F, Cl, unsubstitutedC₁-C₆ alkoxy, and nitro.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl.

In another illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are the compoundswherein R_(B1) is unsubstituted C₂-C₈ straight chain alkenyl.

In a further illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are thecompounds wherein R_(B3) is H; R_(B2) is H; and R_(B1) is one of thesubstituents described above.

In a further illustration, the compounds of formula (II) are thecompounds wherein R_(B3) is H; R_(B2) is unsubstituted C₁-C₆ straightchain alkyl or unsubstituted phenyl; and R_(B1) is unsubstituted methyl.

Specific examples of the compounds of formula (II) include the compoundsin Table 2. Yet further the compounds of formula (II) are(S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid and(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts or racemic mixtures thereof.

In a third aspect, compounds that can be used in the invention includeCompound (11):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a fourth aspect, compounds that can be used in the invention includea compound of one of formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each R₀ is independently halogen, CF₂H, CF₃, R_(b2), OR_(b1), COOR_(b1),CON(R_(b1))₂, N(R_(b2))₂, NR_(b1)COR_(b1), NR_(b1) COOR_(b2),NR_(b1)CON(R_(b1))₂, NR_(b1) SO₂R_(b2), SO₂R_(b2), SO₂N(R_(b1))₂,unsubstituted phenyl, or phenyl substituted with 1-3 substituentsindependently selected from F, Cl, CF₂H, CF₃, OR_(b1), and R_(b2), ortwo such substituents, together with the carbon atoms of the phenylrings to which they are attached, form a five- or six-membered ringhaving a structure selected from

wherein “*” denotes the positions of the carbon atoms to which thesubstituents are attached on the phenyl ring, or

alternatively, when attached to adjacent atoms, any two R₀, togetherwith the atoms to which they are attached, form a five- or six-memberedring having a structure selected from

wherein “*” denotes the positions of the atoms to which the two R₀ areattached, or

each R_(b1) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branchedalkyl, or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl;

each R_(b2) is independently C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branchedalkyl, or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl;

each R_(b3) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branchedalkyl, or halogen;

each Q_(b) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branchedalkyl, or C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branched alkyl substituted with1-6 F, or

both Q_(b), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached,form a C₃-C₆ carbocycle or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which both Q_(b)are attached, wherein the carbocycle or the heterocycle is optionallysubstituted with one or more R_(b3); and

n is 0, 1, 2, or 3.

One class of this aspect are the compounds of formula (IIIa):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Further illustrating this exemplification are the compounds of formula(IIIa), wherein n is 0, 1 or 2. Yet a further illustration includes thecompounds of formula (IIIa) wherein R₀, which can be attached to eitherring of formula (IIIa), is F or Cl. Further defining formula (IIIa) arethe compounds wherein Q_(b) is selected from C₁-C₆ straight chain orC₃-C₆ branched alkyl, or wherein both Q_(b), together with the carbonatom to which they are attached, form a ring selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which both Q_(b)are attached.

Specific examples of formula (IIIa) include Compounds (1)-(8) andpharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:

Preferably, the compound is Compound (1) or (2).

Another class of this aspect are the compounds of formula (IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Specific examples of formula (IIIf) include Compound (10) andpharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein n is 0, 1 or 2. For example, n is 1.

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein each R₀ is independently selectedfrom F, Cl, Br, CF₂H, CF₃, R_(b2), OR_(b1), COOR_(b1), CON(R_(b1))₂,N(R_(b2))₂, NR_(b1)COR_(b1), NR_(b1)COOR_(b2), NR_(b1)CON(R_(b1))₂,NR_(b1)SO₂R_(b2), SO₂R_(b2), SO₂N(R_(b1))₂, unsubstituted phenyl, andphenyl substituted with 1-3 substituents as listed above. For example,each R₀ is independently selected from F, Cl, Br, CF₂H, CF₃ and R_(b2).For example, each R₀ is independently selected from F, Cl and Br. Forexample, n is 0, 1 or 2 and each R₀ is independently selected from F,Cl, Br, CF₂H, CF₃, R_(b2), OR_(b1), COOR_(b1), CON(R_(b1))₂, N(R_(b2))₂,NR_(b1)COR_(b1), NR_(b1)COOR_(b2), NR_(b1)CON(R_(b1))₂,NR_(b1)SO₂R_(b2), SO₂R_(b2), SO₂N(R_(b1))₂, unsubstituted phenyl, andphenyl substituted with 1-3 substituents as listed above. For example, nis 0, 1 or 2 and each R₀ is independently selected from F, Cl, Br, CF₂H,CF₃ and R_(b2). For example, n is 0, 1 or 2 and each R₀ is independentlyselected from F, Cl and Br.

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formulae (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein at least one Q_(b) is C₁-C₆ straightchain alkyl. For example, in certain compounds, at least one Q_(b) ismethyl, ethyl or propyl. For example, each Q_(b) is methyl. For example,n is 0, 1 or 2 and at least one Q_(b) is C₁-C₆ straight chain alkyl(e.g., methyl, ethyl and propyl). For example, n is 0, 1 or 2 and eachQ_(b) is methyl. In another example, at least one Q_(b) is C₁-C₆straight chain alkyl substituted with 1-6 F. For example, in certaincompounds, at least one Q_(b) is methyl, ethyl or propyl substitutedwith 1-6 F. For example, at least one Q_(b) is CH₂F, CHF₂, or CF₃. Forexample, each Q_(b) is CF₃. For example, n is 0, 1 or 2 and at least oneQ_(b) is C₁-C₆ straight chain alkyl substituted with 1-6 F (e.g.,methyl, ethyl or propyl substituted with 1-6 F). For example, n is 0, 1or 2 and each Q_(b) is CF₃.

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formula (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein both Q_(b), together with the carbonatom to which they are attached, form a C₃-C₆ carbocycle or a saturatedheterocycle, each of which is optionally substituted with one or moreR_(b3), wherein each R_(b3) is independently methyl, ethyl, propyl,fluorine, chlorine or bromine (e.g., each R_(b3) is independently methylor fluorine). For example, both Q_(b), together with the carbon atom towhich they are attached, form

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(b) are attached.

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formula (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein each R_(b1) is independently H orC₁-C₆ straight chain alkyl. For example, each R_(b1) is independently H,methyl, ethyl or propyl.

Examples of the compounds of this aspect include a compound of any oneof formula (IIIa)-(IIIf), wherein each R_(b2) is independently methyl,ethyl or propyl.

In a fifth aspect, compounds that can be used in the invention include acompound of formula (IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

A′ and R′, together with the two adjacent carbon atoms to which they areattached, form a five-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogenatom and one oxygen atom, wherein the heteroaryl ring is substitutedwith R_(C)′, wherein “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”, and “6” denote the pointsof attachment of the heteroaryl ring to the phenyl ring, provided thatwhen the heteroaryl ring is

then R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH, R_(C2) is absent, and R_(C)′ is absent, andthat when the heteroaryl ring is

then R_(C1) is absent, R_(C2) is NH₂, and R_(C)′ is absent;

R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH, or R_(C1) is absent when A′ and R′, together withthe two adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

R_(C2) is NH₂, or R_(C2) is absent when A′ and R′, together with the twoadjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached;

R_(C)′ is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy, or R_(C)′ is absent when A′ and R′, together with the twoadjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

q is 0, 1, or 2, provided that when R_(C)′ is phenyl, q is not 0; and

each T is independently halogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano.

In one example, A′ and R′, together with the two adjacent carbon atomsto which they are attached, form a five-membered heteroaryl ringcontaining one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom, wherein the heteroarylring is substituted with R_(C)′. In one example, R_(C)′ is C₃-C₆cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl), aryl (e.g., phenyl), oraryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl). In a further example, R_(C)′ is phenyl, phenylsubstituted with methyl, cyclopropyl, or cyclobutyl. In another example,R_(C)′ is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) orC₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted withC₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example,R_(C)′ is C₁-C₆ alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, and propoxy).

In one example, R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH and R_(C2) is NH₂. In one example,each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl,and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, A′ and R′, together with the two adjacent carbon atomsto which they are attached, form

In another example, A′ and R′, together with the two adjacent carbonatoms to which they are attached, form

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, q is 1 or 2. In a further example, q is 1.

In one example, each T is independently halogen (e.g., F, Cl, and Br).In a further example, each T is independently F or Cl. In anotherexample, each T is independently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, andbutyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl). In another example, each T is independently C₃-C₆cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl).

In one example, A′ and R′, together with the two adjacent carbon atomsto which they are attached, form a five-membered heteroaryl ringcontaining one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom, wherein the heteroarylring is substituted with R_(C)′; R_(C)′ is aryl, aryl substituted withmethyl, or cyclopropyl; q is 1; T is Cl; R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH; R_(C2)is NH₂; and each Q_(C) is methyl.

In a further example of formula (IV), A′ and R′, together with the twoadjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

R_(C2) is NH₂; each Q_(C) is methyl; and q is 0. In another furtherexample of formula (IV), A′ and R′, together with the two adjacentcarbon atoms to which they are attached, form

R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH; each Q_(C) is methyl; and q is 0.

In one class of this aspect, the compounds of formula (IV) are thecompounds of formula (IVa):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

A and R, together with the two adjacent carbon atoms to which they areattached, form a five-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogenatom and one oxygen atom, wherein the heteroaryl ring is substitutedwith R_(C);

R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy;

q₁ is 1 or 2;

each T₁ is independently halogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached.

In one example, R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl), aryl (e.g., phenyl), or aryl (e.g., phenyl) substitutedwith C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a furtherexample, R_(C) is phenyl, phenyl substituted with methyl, cyclopropyl,or cyclobutyl. In yet another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g.,methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyland cyclobutyl). In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₆ alkoxy (e.g.,methoxy, ethoxy, and propoxy).

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, q₁ is 1.

In one example, each T₁ is independently halogen (e.g., F, Cl, and Br).In a further example, each T₁ is independently F or Cl. In anotherexample, each T₁ is independently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, andbutyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl). In another example, each T₁ is independently C₃-C₆cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl).

In a further example of formula (IVa), R_(C) is aryl, aryl substitutedwith methyl, or cyclopropyl; q₁ is 1; T₁ is Cl; and each Q_(C) ismethyl.

One illustration of this class are the compounds of formula (IVa1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₂-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy;

T₁ is F, Cl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached.

In one example, R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl), aryl (e.g., phenyl), or aryl (e.g., phenyl) substitutedwith C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a furtherembodiment, R_(C) is phenyl, phenyl substituted with methyl,cyclopropyl, or cyclobutyl. In a further embodiment, R_(C) is phenyl orphenyl substituted with methyl. In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g.,methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl(e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₆alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, and propoxy).

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, T₁ is Cl. In another example, T₁ is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g.,methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyland cyclobutyl). In another example, T₁ is independently C₃-C₆cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl).

In a further example of formula (IVa1), R_(C) is aryl or arylsubstituted with methyl; T₁ is Cl; and each Q_(C) is methyl.

Further defining the compounds of formula (IVa1) are the compoundswherein:

R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, or aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl;

T₁ is F, Cl, methyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one subclass are the compounds wherein:

T₁ is F, Cl, methyl, or cyano; and

Q_(C) is methyl,

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Further illustrating the compounds of formula (IVa1) are compounds 12and 13:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Another illustration of this class are the compounds of formula (IVa2)or (IVa3):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy;

q₁ is 1 or 2;

each T₁ is independently F, Cl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached.

In one example, R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl), aryl (e.g., phenyl), or aryl (e.g., phenyl) substitutedwith C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a furtherembodiment, R_(C) is phenyl, phenyl substituted with methyl,cyclopropyl, or cyclobutyl. In a further example, R_(C) is cyclopropylor cyclobutyl. In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl,and butyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl). In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₆ alkoxy (e.g., methoxy,ethoxy, and propoxy).

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, q₁ is 1.

In one example, each T₁ is Cl. In another example, each T₁ isindependently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) orC₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted withC₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example,each T₁ is independently C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl).

In a further example of formula (IVa2) or (IVa3), R_(C) is cyclopropyl;q₁ is 1; T₁ is Cl; and each Q_(C) is methyl.

Further defining the compounds of formulae (IVa2) and (IVa3) are thecompounds wherein:

R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, or aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl;

q₁ is 1;

T₁ is F, Cl, methyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₁-C₆ cycloalkyl,

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Further illustrating the compounds of formula (IVa2) or (IVa3) are thecompounds of formula (IVa2A) or (IVa3A):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R_(C), T₁, andQ_(C) are defined above in formula (IVa2) or (IVa3).

Further defining the compounds of formula (IVa2A) or (IVa3A) are thecompounds wherein:

R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, or aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl;

T₁ is F, Cl, methyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopropyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₁-C₆ cycloalkyl,

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

For example, R_(C) is cyclopropyl or cyclobutyl; T₁ is F or Cl; and eachQ_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl.

Further illustrating the compounds of formula (IVa2) or (IVa3) arecompounds 14 and 15:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

A third illustration of this class are the compounds of formula (IVa4):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy;

q₁ is 1 or 2;

each T₁ is independently F, Cl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₁-C₁₀alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached.

In one example, R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl), aryl (e.g., phenyl), or aryl (e.g., phenyl) substitutedwith C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a furtherembodiment, R_(C) is phenyl, phenyl substituted with methyl,cyclopropyl, or cyclobutyl. In a further embodiment, R_(C) iscyclopropyl or cyclobutyl. In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl(e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g.,cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example, R_(C) is C₁-C₆ alkoxy(e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, and propoxy).

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, q₁ is 1.

In one example, each T₁ is Cl. In another example, each T₁ isindependently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) orC₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted withC₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example,each T₁ is independently C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl).

In a further example of formula (IVa4), R_(C) is cyclopropyl; q₁ is 1;T₁ is Cl; and each Q_(C) is methyl.

Further defining the compounds of formula (IVa4) are the compoundswherein:

R_(C) is C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, or aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl;

q₁ is 1;

T₁ is F, Cl, methyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyano; and

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₁-C₆ cycloalkyl,

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Further illustrating this class is compound 16:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In a second class of this aspect, the compounds of formula (IV) are thecompounds of formula (IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

one of R_(U) and R_(Z) is C(Q_(C))₂OH, and the other is NH₂;

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached;

q₂ is 0, 1, or 2; and

each T₂ is independently halogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano.

In one example, each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl (e.g., methyl,ethyl, propyl, and butyl). In a further example, each Q_(C) is methyl.

In one example, q₂ is 0 or 1. In a further example, q₂ is 0.

In one example, each T₂ is independently halogen (e.g., F, Cl, and Br).In a further example, each T₂ is independently F or Cl. In anotherexample, each T₂ is independently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl,propyl, and butyl) or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, andbutyl) substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl). In another example, each T₂ is independently C₃-C₆cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl).

In a further example of formula (IVb), q₂ is 0; and each Q_(C) ismethyl.

One illustration of this class are the compounds of formula (IVb1) or(IVb2):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

q₂ is 0, 1, or 2; and

each T₂ is independently F, Cl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano.

In one example, q₂ is 0 or 1. In a further example, q₂ is 0.

In one example, each T₂ is Cl. In another example, each T₂ isindependently C₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) orC₁-C₁₀ alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl) substituted withC₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl and cyclobutyl). In another example,each T₂ is independently C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl (e.g., cyclopropyl andcyclobutyl).

Further illustrating the compounds of formula (IVb1) or (IVb2) arecompounds 17 and 18:

Compounds that can be used in the invention include the compounds listedin Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1 Com- pound #  1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 6

 7

 8

 9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Table 2

3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoic acid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methylheptanoicacid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-nonanoic acid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-decanoicacid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dodecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-tridecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopropyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclobutyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopentyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclohexyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-trifluoromethyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-phenyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(2-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(3-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(2-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(3-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-benzyl-hexanoic acid, (S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoicacid, (R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoic acid,(3R,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,(3R,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid MP;(3S,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,(3R,4R)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid MP;3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-heptanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-octanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-nonanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-decanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-phenyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-ethoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-propoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-isopropoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-tert-butoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-fluoromethoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-phenoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-hydroxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-methoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-ethoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-propoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-isopropoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-tert-butoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-fluoromethoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(4-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl6-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(2-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-benzyloxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-hydroxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-methoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-ethoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-propoxy-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-isopropoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-tert-butoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-fluoromethoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-heptanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-benzyloxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenoxy-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(4-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(2-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid, (3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid, (3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-7-enoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-8-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-6-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-6-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-6-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-6-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-7-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-7-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dec-7-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undec-7-enoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5,6,6-trimethyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5,6-dimethyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopropyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclobutyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopentyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclohexyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-decanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undecanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dodecanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,9-dimethyl-decanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,7-dimethyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,8-dimethyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-fluoro-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-fluoro-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-fluoro-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-9-fluoro-5-methyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7,7,7-trifluoro-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8,8,8-trifluoro-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-8-phenyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenyl-heptanoic acid.

Compounds described in the invention can be prepared by methods known inthe art. For examples, compounds described in the invention can beprepared according to the methods described in PCT Publication WO2006/127945 and PCT Application Nos. PCT/US2013/076592 andPCT/US2014/012356, the contents of each of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entirety.

Compounds within the scope of the instant invention may contain chiralcenters and thus are capable of existing as racemates, racemic mixtures,diastereomers and single enantiomers. All such forms should beunderstood as within the scope of this invention.

As used herein, “alkyl”, “C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅ or C₆ alkyl” or “C₁-C₆alkyl” is intended to include C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅ or C₆ straight chain(linear) saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon groups and C₃, C₄, C₅ or C₆branched saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon groups. For example, C₁-C₆alkyl is intended to include C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅ and C₆ alkyl groups.Examples of alkyl include, moieties having from one to six carbon atoms,such as, but not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl,s-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, s-pentyl or n-hexyl.

In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched alkyl has six orfewer carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₆ for straight chain, C₃-C₆ for branchedchain), and in another embodiment, a straight chain or branched alkylhas four or fewer carbon atoms.

As used herein, the term “cycloalkyl”, “C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₇ or C₈cycloalkyl” or “C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl” is intended to include hydrocarbonrings having from three to eight carbon atoms in their ring structure.In one embodiment, a cycloalkyl group has five or six carbons in thering structure.

The term “substituted alkyl” refers to alkyl moieties havingsubstituents replacing one or more hydrogen atoms on one or more carbonsof the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example,halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy,aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl,alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano,NH₂, alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, alkylarylamino,acylamino (the term “acylamino” includes alkylearbonylamino,arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl, and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl,alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfate, alkylsulfinyl, sulfamoyl,sulfonamido, trifluoromethyl, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, and anaromatic or heteroaromatic moiety.

“Alkenyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length andpossible substitution to the alkyls described above, but that contain atleast one double bond. For example, the term “alkenyl” includes straightchain alkenyl groups (e.g., ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl,hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl), branched alkenyl groups,cycloalkenyl (e.g., alicyclic) groups (e.g., cyclopropenyl,cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptenyl, cyclooctenyl), alkyl oralkenyl substituted cycloalkenyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenylsubstituted alkenyl groups. In certain embodiments, a straight chain orbranched alkenyl group has six or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone(e.g., C₂-C₆ for straight chain, C₃-C₆ for branched chain). Likewise,cycloalkenyl groups may have from five to eight carbon atoms in theirring structure, and in one embodiment, cycloalkenyl groups have five orsix carbons in the ring structure. The term “C₂-C₆” includes alkenylgroups containing two to six carbon atoms. The term “C₃-C₆” includesalkenyl groups containing three to six carbon atoms.

“Aryl” includes groups with aromaticity, including “conjugated”, ormulticyclic, systems with at least one aromatic ring. Examples includephenyl, benzyl, etc.

“Heteroaryl” groups are aryl groups, as defined above, having from oneto four heteroatoms in the ring structure, and may also be referred toas “aryl heterocycles” or “heteroaromatics”. As used herein, the term“heteroaryl” is intended to include a stable 5-, 6-, or 7-memberedmonocyclic or 7-, 8-, 9-, 10-, 11- or 12-membered bicyclic aromaticheterocyclic ring which consists of carbon atoms and one or moreheteroatoms, e.g., 1 or 1-2 or 1-3 or 1-4 or 1-5 or 1-6 heteroatoms,independently selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen andsulfur. The nitrogen atom may be substituted or unsubstituted (i.e., Nor NR wherein R is H or other substituents, as defined). The nitrogenand sulfur heteroatoms may optionally be oxidized (i.e., N→O andS(O)_(p), where p=1 or 2). It is to be noted that total number of S andO atoms in the aromatic heterocycle is not more than 1. Examples ofheteroaryl groups include pyrrole, furan, thiophene, thiazole,isothiazole, imidazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, oxazole,isoxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyridazine, pyrimidine, and the like.

In the case of multicyclic aromatic rings, only one of the rings needsto be aromatic (e.g., 2,3-dihydroindole), although all of the rings maybe aromatic (e.g., quinoline). The second ring can also be fused orbridged.

The aryl or heteroaryl aromatic ring can be substituted at one or morering positions with such substituents as described above, for example,alkyl, alkenyl, akynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy,arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate,alkylcarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, aralkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl,alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl,phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, amino (including alkylamino,dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino and alkylarylamino), acylamino(including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido),amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate,sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro,trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromaticor heteroaromatic moiety.

The term “alkoxy” or “alkoxyl” includes substituted and unsubstitutedalkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups covalently linked to an oxygen atom.Examples of alkoxy groups or alkoxyl radicals include, but are notlimited to, methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, propoxy, butoxy and pentoxygroups. Examples of substituted alkoxy groups include halogenated alkoxygroups. The alkoxy groups can be substituted with groups such asalkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy,alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl,arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl,dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate,phosphonato, phosphinato, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino,arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (includingalkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino,imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates,alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro,trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromaticor heteroaromatic moieties. Examples of halogen substituted alkoxygroups include, but are not limited to, fluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy,trifluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, dichloromethoxy and trichloromethoxy.

As used herein, “carbocycle” or “carbocyclic ring” is intended toinclude any stable monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic ring having thespecified number of carbons, any of which may be saturated, unsaturated,or aromatic. For example, a C₃-C₁₄ carbocycle is intended to include amonocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic ring having 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 13 or 14 carbon atoms. Examples of carbocycles include, but arenot limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclobutenyl, cyclopentyl,cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptenyl, cycloheptyl, cycloheptenyl,adamantyl, cyclooctyl, cyclooctenyl, cyclooctadienyl, fluorenyl, phenyl,naphthyl, indanyl, adamantyl and tetrahydronaphthyl. Bridged rings arealso included in the definition of carbocycle, including, for example,[3.3.0]bicyclooctane, [4.3.0]bicyclononane, [4.4.0]bicyclodecane and[2.2.2]bicyclooctane. A bridged ring occurs when one or more carbonatoms link two non-adjacent carbon atoms. In one embodiment, bridgerings are one or two carbon atoms. It is noted that a bridge alwaysconverts a monocyclic ring into a tricyclic ring. When a ring isbridged, the substituents recited for the ring may also be present onthe bridge. Fused (e.g., naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl) and Spiro ringsare also included.

As used herein, “heterocycle” includes any ring structure (saturated orpartially unsaturated) which contains at least one ring heteroatom(e.g., N, O or S). Examples of heterocycles include, but are not limitedto, morpholine, pyrrolidine, tetrahydrothiophene, piperidine, piperazineand tetrahydrofuran. Examples of heterocyclic groups include, but arenot limited to, acridinyl, azocinyl, benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl,benzothiofuranyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, benzoxazolinyl,benzthiazolyl, benztriazolyl, benztetrazolyl, benzisoxazolyl,benzisothiazolyl, benzimidazolinyl, carbazolyl, 4aH-carbazolyl,carbolinyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, cinnolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl,2H,6H-1,5,2-dithiazinyl, dihydrofuro[2,3-b]tetrahydrofuran, furanyl,furazanyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolyl, 1H-indazolyl,indolenyl, indolinyl, indolizinyl, indolyl, 3H-indolyl, isatinoyl,isobenzofuranyl, isochromanyl, isoindazolyl, isoindolinyl, isoindolyl,isoquinolinyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, methylenedioxyphenyl,morpholinyl, naphthyridinyl, octahydroisoquinolinyl, oxadiazolyl,1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,5-oxadiazolyl,1,3,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,4-oxadiazol5(4H)-one, oxazolidinyl, oxazolyl,oxindolyl, pyrimidinyl, phenanthridinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl,phenothiazinyl, phenoxathinyl, phenoxazinyl, phthalazinyl, piperazinyl,piperidinyl, piperidonyl, 4-piperidonyl, piperonyl, pteridinyl, purinyl,pyranyl, pyrazinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolyl, pyridazinyl,pyridooxazole, pyridoimidazole, pyridothiazole, pyridinyl, pyridyl,pyrimidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolinyl, 2H-pyrrolyl, pyrrolyl,quinazolinyl, quinolinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinuclidinyl,tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl,tetrazolyl, 6H-1,2,5-thiadiazinyl, 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl,1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,5-thiadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl,thianthrenyl, thiazolyl, thienyl, thienothiazolyl, thienooxazolyl,thienoimidazolyl, thiophenyl, triazinyl, 1,2,3-triazolyl,1,2,4-triazolyl, 1,2,5-triazolyl, 1,3,4-triazolyl and xanthenyl.

The term “substituted”, as used herein, means that any one or morehydrogen atoms on the designated atom is replaced with a selection fromthe indicated groups, provided that the designated atom's normal valencyis not exceeded, and that the substitution results in a stable compound.When a substituent is keto (i.e., ═O), then 2 hydrogen atoms on the atomare replaced. Keto substituents are not present on aromatic moieties.Ring double bonds, as used herein, are double bonds that are formedbetween two adjacent ring atoms (e.g., C═C, C═N or N═N). “Stablecompound” and “stable structure” are meant to indicate a compound thatis sufficiently robust to survive isolation to a useful degree of purityfrom a reaction mixture, and formulation into an efficacious therapeuticagent.

When a bond to a substituent is shown to cross a bond connecting twoatoms in a ring, then such substituent may be bonded to any atom in thering. When a substituent is listed without indicating the atom via whichsuch substituent is bonded to the rest of the compound of a givenformula, then such substituent may be bonded via any atom in suchformula. Combinations of substituents and/or variables are permissible,but only if such combinations result in stable compounds.

When any variable (e.g., R₁) occurs more than one time in anyconstituent or formula for a compound, its definition at each occurrenceis independent of its definition at every other occurrence. Thus, forexample, if a group is shown to be substituted with 0-2 R₁ moieties,then the group may optionally be substituted with up to two R₁ moietiesand R₁ at each occurrence is selected independently from the definitionof R₁. Also, combinations of substituents and/or variables arepermissible, but only if such combinations result in stable compounds.

The present invention is also directed to the use of a compounddescribed herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment,prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of a disease, disorder, orcondition in which aldehyde toxicity is implicated in the pathogenesis.More specifically this aspect of the invention is directed to the use ofa compound described herein in the manufacture of a medicament for thetreatment, prevention, and/or reduction of a risk of (1) an oculardisease, disorder, or condition, including, but not limited to, acorneal disease (e.g., dry eye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus, bullousand other keratopathy, and Fuch's endothelial dystrophy), other oculardisorders or conditions (e.g., allergic conjunctivitis, ocularcicatricial pemphigoid, conditions associated with PRK healing and othercorneal healing, and conditions associated with tear lipid degradationor lacrimal gland dysfunction), and other ocular conditions associatedwith high aldehyde levels as a result of inflammation (e.g., uveitis,scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, and ocular rosacea (with orwithout meibomian gland dysfunction)), (2) a skin disorder or conditionor a cosmetic indication. For example, the disease, disorder, orcondition includes, but is not limited to, psoriasis, topical (discoid)lupus, contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis,radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris, Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and otherichthyosis, solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness,eczema, smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and askin condition associated burn and wound, (3) a condition associatedwith the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents, or(4) an autoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological disease (e.g., lupus, scleroderma, asthma, chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatorybowel disease, sepsis, atherosclerosis, ischemic-reperfusion injury,Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, andfibrotic diseases).

A “patient,” “subject,” or “host” to be treated by the subject methodmay mean either a human or non-human animal, such as primates, mammals,and vertebrates.

The terms “administering of” or “administering a” should be understoodto mean providing a compound or a salt thereof or a pharmaceuticalcomposition to a patient in need of treatment, prevention, or reductionin risk or a symptom.

The term “treating” is art-recognized and includes inhibiting a disease,disorder or condition in a subject, e.g., impeding its progress; andrelieving the disease, disorder or condition, e.g., causing regressionof the disease, disorder and/or condition. Treating the disease,disorder or condition includes ameliorating at least one symptom of theparticular disease, disorder or condition, even if the underlyingpathophysiology is not affected.

The term “preventing” is art-recognized and includes stopping a disease,disorder or condition from occurring in a subject which may bepredisposed to the disease, disorder and/or condition but has not yetbeen diagnosed as having it. Preventing a condition related to a diseaseincludes stopping the condition from occurring after the disease hasbeen diagnosed but before the condition has been diagnosed.

The term “reducing the risk of” means that the likelihood of a subjectto suffer from a disease, disorder or condition is decreased, forexample, from between 50% and 100% to between 0 and 90%, between 0 and80%, between 0 and 70%, between 0 and 60%, or between 0 and 50%, ordecreased by 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90%.

The term “alleviate” is meant to describe a process by which theseverity of a sign or symptom of a disorder is decreased. Importantly, asign or symptom can be alleviated without being eliminated. In apreferred embodiment, the administration of pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention leads to the elimination of a sign or symptom, however,elimination is not required. Effective dosages are expected to decreasethe severity of a sign or symptom.

The term “symptom” is defined as an indication of disease, illness,injury, or that something is not right in the body. Symptoms are felt ornoticed by the individual experiencing the symptom, but may not easilybe noticed by others. Others are defined as non-health-careprofessionals.

The present invention is also directed to the use of a compounddescribed herein in treating, preventing, and/or reducing a risk of adisease, disorder, or condition in which aldehyde toxicity is implicatedin the pathogenesis. More specifically this aspect of the invention isdirected to the use of a compound described herein in treating,preventing, and/or reducing a risk of (1) an ocular disease, disorder,or condition, including, but not limited to, a corneal disease (e.g.,dry eye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus, bullous and other keratopathy,and Fuch's endothelial dystrophy), other ocular disorders or conditions(e.g., allergic conjunctivitis, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid,conditions associated with PRK healing and other corneal healing, andconditions associated with tear lipid degradation or lacrimal glanddysfunction), and other ocular conditions associated with high aldehydelevels as a result of inflammation (e.g., uveitis, scleritis, ocularStevens Johnson Syndrome, and ocular rosacea (with or without meibomiangland dysfunction)), (2) a skin disorder or condition or a cosmeticindication. For example, the disease, disorder, or condition includes,but is not limited to, psoriasis, topical (discoid) lupus, contactdermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiationdermatitis, acne vulgaris, Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and otherichthyosis, solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness,eczema, smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and askin condition associated burn and wound, (3) a condition associatedwith the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents, or(4) an autoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological disease (e.g., lupus, scleroderma, asthma, chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatorybowel disease, sepsis, atherosclerosis, ischemic-reperfusion injury,Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, andfibrotic diseases).

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” is art-recognized. In certainembodiments, the term includes compositions, polymers and othermaterials and/or dosage forms which are, within the scope of soundmedical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humanbeings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergicresponse, or other problem or complication, commensurate with areasonable benefit/risk ratio.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” is art-recognized, andincludes relatively non-toxic, inorganic and organic acid additionsalts, and inorganic and organic base addition salts, including withoutlimitation, the compounds described herein. Examples of pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts include those derived from mineral acids, such ashydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid, and those derived from organicacids, such as ethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid,p-toluenesulfonic acid, and the like. Examples of suitable inorganicbases for the formation of salts include the hydroxides, carbonates, andbicarbonates of ammonia, sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,aluminum, zinc and the like. Salts may also be formed with suitableorganic bases, including those that are non-toxic and strong enough toform such salts. For purposes of illustration, the class of such organicbases may include mono-, di-, and trialkylamines, such as methylamine,dimethylamine, and triethylamine; mono-, di- or trihydroxyalkylaminessuch as mono-, di-, and triethanolamine; amino acids, such as arginineand lysine; guanidine; N-methylglucosamine; N-methylglucamine;L-glutamine; N-methylpiperazine; morpholine; ethylenediamine;N-benzylphenethylamine; (trihydroxymethyl)aminoethane; and the like.See, for example, J. Pharm. Sci. 66:1-19 (1977).

The compounds described herein may be administered in the parent form oras a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. A compound described hereinshould be understood to include both. Pharmaceutically acceptable saltscan be prepared from a parent compound that contains basic or acidicmoieties by conventional chemical methods. Acid addition salts wouldinclude, but are not limited to, hydrochloride, hydrobromide,hydroiodide, nitrate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, acid phosphate,isonicotinate, acetate, lactate, salicylate, citrate, tartrate,pantothenate, bitartrate, ascorbate, succinate, maleate, gentisinate,fumarate, gluconate, glucaronate, saccharate, formate, benzoate,glutamate, methanesulfonate, ethanesulfonate, benzensulfonate,p-toluenesulfonate and pamoate (i.e.,1,1′-methylene-bis-(2-hydroxy-3-naphthoate)) salts. Certain compoundsdescribed herein can form pharmaceutically acceptable salts with variousamino acids. Suitable base salts include, but are not limited to,aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, anddiethanolamine salts. For reviews on pharmaceutically acceptable saltssee S. M. Berge, L. D. Bighley and D. C. Monkhouse, Pharmaceuticalsalts, J. Pharm. Sci., 66, 1-19 (1977) and P. H. Stahl and C. G. Weimuth(eds.), Pharmaceutical Salts: Properties, Selection, and Use, Weinheim,Germany: Wiley and Zurich: Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta, 2002 [ISBN3-906390-26-8], incorporated herein by reference. Reference to theparent compound or a salt thereof should be understood to include allhydrates of the compound and all polymorphic forms of the parentcompound.

The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is art-recognized, andincludes, for example, pharmaceutically acceptable materials,compositions or vehicles, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent,excipient, solvent or encapsulating material, involved in carrying ortransporting any subject composition from one organ, or portion of thebody, to another organ, or portion of the body. Each carrier must be“acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredientsof a subject composition and not injurious to the patient. In certainembodiments, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is non-pyrogenic.Some examples of materials which may serve as pharmaceuticallyacceptable carriers include: (1) sugars, such as lactose, glucose andsucrose; (2) starches, such as corn starch and potato starch; (3)cellulose, and its derivatives, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; (4) powdered tragacanth; (5)malt; (6) gelatin; (7) talc; (8) excipients, such as cocoa butter andsuppository waxes; (9) oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil,sunflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; (10)glycols, such as propylene glycol; (11) polyols, such as glycerin,sorbitol, mannitol and polyethylene glycol; (12) esters, such as ethyloleate and ethyl laurate; (13) agar; (14) buffering agents, such asmagnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; (15) alginic acid; (16)pyrogen-free water; (17) isotonic saline; (18) Ringer's solution; (19)ethyl alcohol; (20) phosphate buffer solutions; and (21) other non-toxiccompatible substances employed in pharmaceutical formulations.

A “pharmaceutical composition” is a formulation containing the disclosedcompounds in a foul′ suitable for administration to a subject. In apreferred embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is in bulk or inunit dosage form. The unit dosage form is any of a variety of forms,including, for example, a tablet, a capsule, an IV bag, a vial, or asingle pump on an aerosol inhaler. The quantity of active ingredient(e.g., a formulation of the disclosed compound or salts thereof) in aunit dose of composition is an effective amount and is varied accordingto the particular treatment involved. One skilled in the art willappreciate that it is sometimes necessary to make routine variations tothe dosage depending on the age and condition of the patient. The dosagewill also depend on the route of administration. In a preferredembodiment, the active compound is mixed under sterile conditions with apharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally with anypreservatives, buffers, or propellants that may be required.

The compounds described herein may be administered with apharmaceutically acceptable carrier in a pharmaceutical composition. Thepharmaceutical compositions of the present invention encompass anycomposition made by admixing a therapeutically effective amount of acompound described herein with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.The administration may be by systemic means.

“Systemic administration” or “administered systemically” refers to aroute of administration of the compounds or pharmaceutical compositionsdescribed therein such that the effect associated with theadministration of the compounds or pharmaceutical composition is feltthroughout the body, and is not limited to a specific location at whichor a particular means by which the compounds or pharmaceuticalcompositions are administered. For example, a systemic administrationincludes, but is not limited to, an oral, a nasal, a parenteral, asubcutaneous, an intraocular, an intradermal, an intramuscular, anintravenous, an intraperitoneal, an intrathecal, intra-vesicular,intra-ventricular, intra-peritoneal, intra-parenchymal, a transdermal,and a transmucosal administration.

The compounds described herein can also be administered topically, suchas directly to the eye, e.g., as an eye-drop or ophthalmic ointment. Eyedrops typically comprise an effective amount of at least one compounddescribed herein and a carrier capable of being safely applied to aneye. For example, the eye drops are in the form of an isotonic solution,and the pH of the solution is adjusted so that there is no irritation ofthe eye. In many instances, the epithelial barrier interferes withpenetration of molecules into the eye. Thus, most currently usedophthalmic drugs are supplemented with some form of penetrationenhancer. These penetration enhancers work by loosening the tightjunctions of the most superior epithelial cells (Burstein, TransOphthalmol Soc UK 104: 402 (1985); Ashton et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther259: 719 (1991); Green et al., Am J Ophthalmol 72: 897 (1971)). The mostcommonly used penetration enhancer is benzalkonium chloride (Tang etal., J Pharm Sci 83: 85 (1994); Burstein et al, Invest Ophthalmol VisSci 19: 308 (1980)), which also works as preservative against microbialcontamination.

Topical administration may be in the form of a cream, suspension,emulsion, ointment, drops, oil, lotion, patch, tape, inhalant, spray, orcontrolled release topical formulations including gels, films, patches,and adhesives. Intra-ocular administration may take the form ofsubconjunctival, subtenon's capsule, retrobulbar or intravitrealinjections, depots or implants. Compounds administered by these routesmay be in solution or suspension form. Administration of compounds bydepot injection may contain pharmaceutically acceptable carriers orexcipients; these may be natural or synthetic and may be biodegradableor non-biodegradable and facilitate drug release in a controlled manner.Implants used for controlled release of compound may be composed ofnatural or synthetic, biodegradable or non-biodegradable materials. Thecarrier is acceptable in that it is compatible with the other componentsof the composition and is not injurious to the patient. Some examples ofcarriers include (1) sugars such as lactose glucose and sucrose, (2)starches such as corn starch and potato starch, (3) cellulose and (4)cyclodextrins. A useful topical formulation is described in PCTpublication WO 2011/072141, the contents of which are hereinincorporated by reference.

Formulations for topical administration to the skin can include, forexample, ointments, creams, gels and pastes comprising the primary aminecompound in a pharmaceutical acceptable carrier. The formulation of theprimary amine compound for topical use includes the preparation ofoleaginous or water-soluble ointment bases, as is well known to those inthe art. For example, these formulations may include vegetable oils,animal fats, and, for example, semisolid hydrocarbons obtained frompetroleum. Particular components used may include white ointment, yellowointment, cetyl esters wax, oleic acid, olive oil, paraffin, petrolatum,white petrolatum, spermaceti, starch glycerite, white wax, yellow wax,lanolin, anhydrous lanolin and glyceryl monostearate. Variouswater-soluble ointment bases may also be used, including glycol ethersand derivatives, polyethylene glycols, polyoxyl 40 stearate andpolysorbates.

The formulations for topical administration may contain the compoundused in the present application at a concentration in the range of0.001-10%, 0.05-10%, 0.1-10%, 0.2-10%, 0.5-10%, 1-10%, 2-10%, 3-10%,4-10%, 5-10%, or 7-10% (weight/volume), or in the range of 0.001-2.0%,0.001-1.5%, or 0.001-1.0%, (weight/volume), or in the range of0.05-2.0%, 0.05-1.5%, or 0.05-1.0%, (weight/volume), or in the range of0.1-5.0%, 0.1-2.0%, 0.1-1.5%, or 0.1-1.0% (weight/volume), or in therange of 0.5-5.0%, 0.5-2.0%, 0.5-1.5%, or 0.5-1.0% (weight/volume), orin the range of 1-5.0%, 1-2.0%, or 1-1.5% (weight/volume). Theformulations for topical administration may also contain the compoundused in the present application at a concentration in the range of0.001-2.5%, 0.01-2.5%, 0.05-2.0%, 0.1-2.0%, 0.2-2.0%, 0.5-2.0%, or1-2.0% (weight/weight), or in the range of 0.001-2.0%, 0.001-1.5%,0.001-1.0%, or 0.001-5% (weight/weight).

In an eye drop formulation the composition may contain the activecompound at a concentration of 0.01-20%, 0.02-15%, 0.04-10%, 0.06-5%,0.08-1%, or 0.09-0.5% (weight/volume) with or without pH and/or osmoticadjustment to the solution. More particularly, the eye drop formulationmay contain a compound described herein at a concentration of 0.09-0.5%(weight/volume), such as 0.1%.

In one exemplification, the pharmaceutical compositions encompass acomposition made by admixing a therapeutically effective amount of acompound described herein with an oligomeric or a polymeric carrier suchas a cyclodextrin, or chemically modified cyclodextrin, includingtrimethyl-β-cyclodextrin, 2-hydroxyethyl-β-cyclodextrin,2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin, 3-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin, andβ-cyclodextrin sulfobutylether sodium salt (or potassium salt).Exemplifying an oligomeric or a polymeric carrier is β-cyclodextrinsulfobutylether sodium salt. The amount of β-cyclodextrinsulfobutylether sodium salt in the composition may range from about0.01% to 30% weight/volume. In one illustration, the concentration ofβ-cyclodextrin sulfobutylether sodium salt is 5-25% weight/volume.Further illustrating the concentration of β-cyclodextrin sulfobutylethersodium salt is 6-20% weight/volume. In one exemplification theconcentration of β-cyclodextrin sulfobutylether is 6-12% weight/volume.Further exemplifying the concentration of β-cyclodextrin sulfobutyletheris 9-10% weight/volume, including 9.5% weight/volume. The amount of thecompound described herein in the composition may range 0.01-20%,0.02-15%, 0.04-10%, 0.06-5%, 0.08-1%, or 0.09-0.5% (weight/volume). Moreparticularly, the composition may contain a compound described herein ata concentration of 0.09-0.5% (weight/volume), such as 0.1%.

The compounds described herein may be administered orally and as suchthe pharmaceutical compositions containing the active ingredient may bein a form suitable for oral use, for example, as tablets, troches,lozenges, aqueous or oily suspensions, dispersible powders or granules,emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups or elixirs. Compositionsintended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known tothe art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and suchcompositions may contain one or more agents selected from the groupconsisting of sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents andpreserving agents in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant andpalatable preparations.

For oral administration in the form of a tablet or capsule (e.g., agelatin capsule), the active drug component can be combined with anoral, non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable inert carrier such asethanol, glycerol, water and the like. Moreover, when desired ornecessary, suitable binders, lubricants, disintegrating agents andcoloring agents can also be incorporated into the mixture. Suitablebinders include starch, magnesium aluminum silicate, starch paste,gelatin, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose and/orpolyvinylpyrrolidone, natural sugars such as glucose or beta-lactose,corn sweeteners, natural and synthetic gums such as acacia, tragacanthor sodium alginate, polyethylene glycol, waxes and the like. Lubricantsused in these dosage forms include sodium oleate, sodium stearate,magnesium stearate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride,silica, talcum, stearic acid, its magnesium or calcium salt and/orpolyethyleneglycol and the like. Disintegrators include, withoutlimitation, starch, methyl cellulose, agar, bentonite, xanthan gumstarches, agar, alginic acid or its sodium salt, or effervescentmixtures, croscarmellose or its sodium salt, and the like. Diluents,include, e.g., lactose, dextrose, sucrose, mannitol, sorbitol, celluloseand/or glycine.

Tablets contain the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxicpharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are suitable for themanufacture of tablets. These excipients may be for example, inertdiluents, such as calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, calciumphosphate or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents,for example, corn starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, for examplestarch, gelatin or acacia, and lubricating agents, for example magnesiumstearate, stearic acid or talc. The tablets may be uncoated or they maybe coated by known techniques to delay disintegration and absorption inthe gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over alonger period.

A therapeutically effective dose, of a compound described herein in anoral formulation, may vary from 0.01 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg patient bodyweight per day, more particularly 0.01 to 10 mg/kg, which can beadministered in single or multiple doses per day. For oraladministration the drug can be delivered in the form of tablets orcapsules containing 1 mg to 500 mg of the active ingredientspecifically, 1 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 20 mg, 50 mg, 100 mg, 250 mg, and 500mg, or in the forms of tables or capsules containing at least 1%, 2%,5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50% (w/w) of the active ingredient.For example, the capsules may contain 50 mg of the active ingredient, or5-10% (w/w) of the active ingredient. For example, the tablets maycontain 100 mg of the active ingredient, or 20-50% (w/w) of the activeingredient. For example, the tablet may contain, in addition to theactive ingredient, a disintegrant (e.g., croscarmellose or its sodiumsalt and methyl cellulose), a diluent (e.g., microcrystallinecellulose), and a lubricant (e.g., sodium stearate and magnesiumstearate). The drug can be administered on a daily basis either once,twice or more per day.

For administration by inhalation, the compounds are delivered in theform of an aerosol spray from pressured container or dispenser, whichcontains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide, or anebulizer.

For transmucosal or transdermal administration, penetrants appropriateto the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Suchpenetrants are generally known in the art, and include, for example, fortransmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, and fusidic acidderivatives. Transmucosal administration can be accomplished through theuse of nasal sprays or suppositories. For transdermal administration,the active compounds are formulated into ointments, salves, gels, orcreams as generally known in the art.

Parenteral formulations comprising a compound described herein can beprepared in aqueous isotonic solutions or suspensions, and suppositoriesare advantageously prepared from fatty emulsions or suspensions. Theformulations may be sterilized and/or contain adjuvants, such aspreserving, stabilizing, wetting or emulsifying agents, solutionpromoters, salts for regulating the osmotic pressure and/or buffers. Inaddition, they may also contain other therapeutically valuablesubstances. The compositions are prepared according to conventionalmethods, and may contain about 0.1 to 75%, preferably about 1 to 50%, ofa compound described herein.

The phrases “parenteral administration” and “administered parenterally”are art-recognized terms, and include modes of administration other thanenteral and topical administration, such as injections, and include,without limitation, intravenous, intramuscular, intrapleural,intravascular, intrapericardial, intraarterial, intrathecal,intracapsular, intraorbital, intracardiac, intradermal, intraperitoneal,transtracheal, subcutaneous, subcuticular, intra-articular, subcapsular,subarachnoid, intraspinal and intrasternal injection and infusion.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Primary rat cortical cultures were placed in an incubator for 24 or 48hours and treated with various concentrations of Compound 9. Then 20 μLof the culture media was removed for an LDH assay as described inBergmeyer et al., Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 3^(rd) ed. (1983). Asshown in FIG. 2, Compound 9 prevented aldehyde-mediated cell death inneurons.

Example 2

Male C57BI/6 mice were dosed with Compound 9 30 minutes before they wereexposed to LPS (20 mg/kg). Two hours after the LPS exposure, blood wascollected from the mice and an ELISA was conducted to determine theamount of circulating cytokines. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, Compound 9treatment led to reduction in proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-5and IL-1β, IL-17, and TNF. Also, FIG. 4 shows that Compound 9 treatmentresulted in elevated anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10. Inaddition, various other chemokines, such as eotaxin, IL-12, IP-10, LIF,MCP-1, MIG, MIP, and RANTES, were also decreased by Compound 9treatment.

Example 3

To determine the efficacy of Compound 9 in treating contact dermatitis,phorbol myristate acetate (“PMA”) was applied topically (2.5 μg in 20μL) to both the anterior and posterior portions of the right pinna ofmice (N=10 per group). As a control, the left pinna received 20 μL ofethanol (PMA excipient) to both the anterior and posterior portions. Sixhours after the PMA application, both the right and left pinna thicknesswas determined. Measurements were determined at least twice from thesame region of both ears, with care taken not to include hair or foldedpinna. The results are shown in FIG. 5A.

Example 4

To measure the efficacy of Compound 9 in treating allergic dermatitis,oxazolone (“OXL”) was applied (1.5%, 100 μL in acetone) to the shavedabdomens of mice. Seven days later, the thickness of the pinna of theOXL treated mice was determined. Then Compound 9 (100 mg/kg) or thevehicle (i.e., Captisol) was administered intraperitoneally to micefollowed by topical application of OXL (1%, 20 μL) 30 min later to boththe anterior and posterior portions of the right pinna. As a control,the left pinna received 20 μL of acetone (OXL excipient) to both theanterior and posterior portions. The thickness of the pinna of both earswas measured again 24 hours later. N=10 per group. The results are shownin FIG. 5B.

Example 5

To five separate reaction vials was added Compounds 1, 2, 12, 14, and16, respectively (0.064 mmol), MDA salt (22.7% MDA, 0.064 mmol), andglyceryl trioleate (600 mg). To the mixture was added 20 wt % Capitsolin aqueous PBS (˜2.5 ml), followed by linoleic acid (600 mg). Thereaction mixture was stirred vigorously at ambient temperature andmonitored by LC/MS. The Compounds quickly react with MDA to form MDAadducts. For Compounds 1, 12, 14, and 16, a majority of the adducts werebis-oxaminal. Other MDA adducts were also formed at different timepoints of the reactions.

Compound 9 also reacted with MDA and formed MDA adducts, in both theimine form and the oxaminal form.

Thus, each of Compounds 1, 2, 9, 12, 14, and 16 reacts and traps MDA.

Example 6. Synthesis of2-(3-amino-6-chloro-5-fluoroquinolin-4-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (1))(E)- and (Z)-3-chloro-2-fluoro-6-(2-nitrovinylamino)benzoic acid (1-1)

37.19 g crude wet methazonic acid (prepared by the method of G. B.Bachman et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 365-371 (1947)) was mixed with 50g 6-amino-3-chloro-2-fluorobenzoic acid (Butt Park Ltd., Camelford,Cornwall, UK) and 750 mL acetone and shaken until a clear solution wasformed. To the solution was added sequentially 200 mL water and 200 mL12 N HCl, and the solution was kept 3 days at room temperature. Themixture was diluted with 2 L water and filtered. The filtrate wasevaporated to remove acetone and filtered. The combined solids werewashed with water (4×200 mL) and dried at 60° C. under high vacuum toafford 1-1 as a 4.5:1 mixture of E- and Z-isomers.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ: E-isomer 6.79 (d, 1H, J=6.4 Hz), 7.58 (d,1H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.83 (t, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.99 (dd, 1H, J=6.4, 13.2 Hz),12.34 (d, 1H, NH, J=13.2 Hz), 14.52 (br, 1H, OH). Z-isomer 7.39 (d, 1H,J=11.2 Hz), 7.42 (d, 1H, J=9.6 Hz), 7.71 (t, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.49 (t, 1H,J=11.6 Hz), 10.24 (d, 1H, NH, J=12.4 Hz), 14.52 (br, 1H, OH). LC-MS: 259[(M-H)⁻].

6-chloro-5-fluoro-3-nitroquinolin-4-ol (1-2)

A mixture of 62.0 g (1-1), 55.2 gN-ethyl-N′-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and30.1 g N-hydroxysuccinimide (HOSu) in 1 L absolute dimethylformamide(DMF) was stirred at room temperature for 1 h. 4-dimethylaminopyridine(DMAP, 38.7 g) was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperaturefor 2 h. The mixture was filtered, and the solid was washed with 10%HOAc (4×200 mL), air-dried overnight, and then dried at 60° C. underhigh vacuum to give (1-2) as a pale yellow powder.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ: 7.52 (dd, 1H, J=0.8, 8.8 Hz), 7.91 (dd, 1H,J=7.2, 8.8 Hz), 9.15 (s, 1H), 13.0 (br, 1H, OH). LC-MS: 242.9 (MH)⁺,264.9 (MNa)⁺.

4-bromo-6-chloro-5-fluoro-3-nitroquinoline (1-3)

A mixture of 40 g (1-2) and 71 g POBr₃ in 150 mL dry DMF was stirred at80° C. for 1 h. The mixture was cooled to room temperature, diluted with2 L CH₂Cl₂, and transferred to a separatory funnel containing 1.5 L icewater. The organic layer was separated, washed with ice water (3×1.5 L),dried with MgSO₄, and evaporated to give crude (1-3) as a light brownsolid, which was used without further purification.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 4.70 (br, 2H, NH₂), 7.42 (dd, 1H, J=6.0, 9.0Hz), 7.73 (dd, 1H, J=1.8, 8.8 Hz). LC-MS: 274.8 (MH)⁺, 276.8 [(M+2)H]⁺,278.8 [(M+4)H]⁺.

4-bromo-6-chloro-5-fluoroquinolin-3-amine (1-4)

Crude (1-3) (51.2 g) was dissolved in 40 mL glacial HOAc under Ar, 3 gFe powder was added, and the mixture was stirred at 60° C. for 10 min.The mixture was diluted with 200 mL EtOAc, filtered through Celite, andthe Celite was washed thoroughly with EtOAc. The combined filtrates werepassed through a short silica gel column, and the column was washed withEtOAc until all (1-4) was recovered. The combined EtOAc fractions wereevaporated to dryness to give crude (1-4) which was crystallized fromhexanes-EtOAc to provide (1-4) as a pale brown solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 4.70 (br, 2H, NH₂), 7.42 (dd, 1H, J=6.0, 9.0Hz), 7.73 (dd, 1H, J=1.8, 8.8 Hz). LC-MS: 274.8 (MH)⁺, 276.8 [(M+2)H]⁺,278.8 [(M+4)H]⁺.

2-(3-amino-6-chloro-5-fluoroquinolin-4-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (1))

A dry 1 L round bottom flask was flushed with argon and cooled to −78°C. in a dry ice/acetone bath. Dry tetrahydrofuran (THF, 300 mL) wasinjected, followed by 72.6 mL 2.5 M n-BuLi/hexanes. (1-4) (20 g) in 300mL dry THF was added dropwise with vigorous stirring over 2 h, affordinga dark red solution of the 4-quinolinelithium. Ultra dry acetone (27 mL)was added dropwise over 10 min, and the solution was stirred for anadditional 10 min. A solution of 20 g NH₄Cl in 100 mL water was addedand the mixture was warmed to room temperature, transferred to aseparatory funnel containing 300 mL EtOAc, and shaken thoroughly. Theorganic layer was separated and the aqueous layer was extracted withEtOAc (2×250 mL). The combined organic layers were dried with anhydrousMgSO₄ and evaporated to a dark brown residue which was partiallypurified by chromatography on a silica gel column eluted withhexanes-EtOAc to afford a mixture containing6-chloro-5-fluoroquinolin-3-amine and Compound (1). Compound (1) wasisolated by crystallization from hexanes-EtOAc.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CD₃OD) δ: 1.79 (s, 3H), 1.80 (s, 3H), 7.36 (dd, 1H,J=7.2, 8.8 Hz), 7.61 (dd, 1H, J=1.6, 9.0 Hz), 8.35 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (100MHz, CD₃OD) δ: 29.8, 29.9, 76.7, 120.4 (d, J_(C-F)=12 Hz), 120.5 (d,J_(C-F)=4 Hz), 125.4, 126.1 (d, J_(C-F)=3 Hz), 126.6 (d, J_(C-F)=3 Hz),143.1, 143.2 (d, J_(C-F)=5 Hz), 148.3, 152.7 (d, J_(C-F)=248 Hz). LC-MS:254.9 (MH)⁺, 256.9 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 7. Synthesis of 2-(3-amino-6-chloroquinolin-4-yl)propan-2-ol(Compound (2)) 6-chloro-3-nitroquinolin-4-ol (2-1)

A mixture of cis- and trans-5-chloro-2-(2-nitrovinylamino)benzoic acid(68.4 g, Sus et al., Liebigs Ann. Chem. 583: 150 (1953)), 73 g EDC and35.7 g HOSu in 1 L dry DMF was stirred at room temperature for 1 h.After adding 45.8 g DMAP the mixture was stirred at room temperature for2 h. To the stirred mixture was slowly added 1 L 10% HOAc, and theresulting suspension was poured into 2 L 10% HOAc. The solid wasfiltered off, washed with 10% HOAc (4×400 mL) and dried at 80° C. underhigh vacuum to give (2-1) as a tan powder.

4-bromo-6-chloro-quinolin-3-amine (2-2)

A mixture of 25 g (2-1) and 50 g POBr₃ in 100 mL dry DMF was stirred at80° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature,diluted with 2 L CH₂Cl₂, and transferred to a reparatory funnelcontaining 1 L ice water. The organic layer was separated, washed withice water (3×1 L), dried with MgSO₄, and evaporated to provide crude4-bromo-6-chloroquinolin-4-ol as a light brown solid (38 g, 100% crudeyield). The quinolinol was dissolved in 750 mL glacial HOAc, 36 g ironpowder was added, and the stirred mixture was heated under Ar at 60° C.until the color turned to grey. The mixture was diluted with 2 L EtOAc,filtered through Celite, and the Celite was washed with EtOAc. Thecombined filtrates were passed through a short silica gel column whichwas washed with EtOAc until all (2-2) was recovered. The combinedfractions were evaporated to dryness and the residue was crystallizedfrom hexanes-EtOAc to provide (2-2) as a tan solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 4.47 (br, 2H, NH₂), 7.41 (dd, 1H, J=2.4, 8.8Hz), 7.89 (d, 1H, J=9.2 Hz), 7.96 (d, 1H, J=2.4 Hz), 8.45 (s, 1H).LC-MS: 256.7 (MH)⁺, 258.7 [(M+2)H]⁺, 260.7 [(M+4)H]⁺.

Synthesis of 2-(3-amino-6-chloroquinolin-4-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (2))

A mixture of 20 g (2-2) and 800 mL dioxane was stirred at 60° C. until asolution formed, cooled to room temperature, and sparged with dry HClfor 5 min. The solvent was evaporated, and 500 mL dioxane was added andevaporated to provide 4-bromo-6-chloroquinolin-3-aminium hydrochloride.The product was mixed with 100 g NaI and 600 mL dry MeCN and refluxedovernight. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was partitionedbetween 500 mL EtOAc and a solution of 10 g NaHCO₃ in 500 mL water. Theorganic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer was extracted withEtOAc (2×200 mL). The combined organic layers were dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated to provide 6-chloro-4-iodoquinolin-3-amine as a tan solid. Adry 1 L round bottom flask was flushed with Ar and cooled to −78° C. ina dry ice/acetone bath. Dry THF (350 mL) was added followed by 188 mL1.7 M t-BuLi/pentane with vigorous stirring. A solution of 25.8 g crude6-chloro-4-iodoquinolin-3-amine in 350 mL dry THF was added dropwise tothe stirred mixture. When addition was complete the reaction mixture wasstirred at −78° C. for 5 min. Ultra dry acetone (50 mL) was addeddropwise and the solution was stirred at −78° C. for 10 min afteraddition was complete. A solution of 20 g NH₄Cl in 200 mL water wasadded and the mixture was warmed up to room temperature, transferred toa separatory funnel containing 300 mL EtOAc. The organic layer wasseparated and the aqueous layer extracted with EtOAc (2×250 mL). Thecombined organic layers were dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated to a darkbrown residue. The residue was partially purified by columnchromatography on silica gel eluted with hexanes-EtOAc. All fractionscontaining (2-3) were combined and evaporated to give crude (2-3) as ared oil. A batch of crude ii) (ca. 2 g) obtained from a separatesynthesis was added to this product, and the combined batches weredissolved in 50 mL EtOAc and filtered. The filtrate and washings werecombined and concentrated to an oil which was diluted with 10 mL hothexanes, treated dropwise with EtOAc until a clear solution formed, andallowed to evaporate at room temperature overnight in the fume hood. Theoily mother liquor was removed and the solid was washed with minimumvolumes of 3:1 hexanes-EtOAc. After recrystallization twice fromhexanes-EtOAc, a first crop of pure (Compound (2)) was obtained asoff-white crystals. All the mother liquor and washings were pooled andEtOAc (ca. 50 mL) was added to form a clear solution which was extractedwith 0.5 N aq. HCl (4×100 mL). The aqueous layers were pooled andneutralized with 20% NaOH to pH 8. The resulting suspension wasextracted with EtOAc (3×50 mL) and the combined organic layers weredried with MgSO₄ and evaporated to dryness. The residue was purified bycolumn chromatography and two crystallizations from hexanes-EtOAc toprovide a second crop of (2-3). A third crop (2-3) was obtained byfractional crystallization of the combined mother liquor and washingsfrom hexanes-EtOAc.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.93 (s, 6H), 3.21 (br, 1H, OH), 5.39 (br,2H, NH₂), 7.29 (dd, 1H, J=2.0, 8.8 Hz), 7.83 (d, 1H, J=8.8 Hz), 7.90 (d,1H, J=2.0 Hz), 8.21 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 31.5, 76.5,123.2, 124.6, 125.7, 127.5, 131.5, 131.9, 138.8, 141.5, 146.5. LC-MS:236.9 (MH)⁺, 238.9 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 8. Synthesis of2-(5-amino-7-chloro-2-p-tolylbenzoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (12))3-Methoxy-4-(trifluoroacetylamino)benzoic acid (12-1)

To a suspension of 5.0 g 4-amino-3-methoxybenzoic acid in 200 mL EtOAcwas added under stirring a solution of 5.0 mL (CF₃CO)₂O in 50 mL ofEtOAc. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was further stirredat room temperature for 2 h. The solution was filtered, and the filtratewas evaporated to dryness. The residue was dissolved and evaporatedtwice in EtOAc. The final residue was dried under high vacuum to affordpure (12-1) as a white solid.

5-Methoxy-2-nitro-4-(trifluoroacetylamino)benzoic acid (12-2)

A suspension of 7.55 g (12-1) in 80 mL 96% H₂SO₄ was stirred at roomtemperature until a homogeneous solution was formed. The solution wascooled with an ice bath under stirring while a solution of 2.03 g 90.6%fuming HNO₃ in 20 mL 96% H₂SO₄ was added dropwise under cooling. Thetemperature was maintained below 10° C. After complete addition, themixture was further stirred for 10 min, and then slowly added onto 200 gice under vigorous stirring. The mixture was saturated with NaCl andextracted with EtOAc (3×100 mL). The combined organic layer was washedwith brine (2×50 mL), dried with Na₂SO₄, and then evaporated to givepure (12-2) as a light brown solid.

4-Amino-5-hydroxy-2-nitrobenzoic acid (12-3)

A mixture of 6.94 g (12-2) in 35 mL 20% aqueous NaOH was stirred underargon at 100° C. overnight. The mixture was cooled to room temperature.To it was added dropwise 20 mL 12 N HCl under ice bath cooling. Aftercomplete addition, the solution was evaporated, and the residue wasextracted with 200 mL absolute EtOH. The solid NaCl was filtered off,and the filtrate was evaporated to give the crude HCl salt of (12-3) asa dark grey solid.

4-Amino-5-hydroxy-2-nitrobenzoic acid ethyl ester (12-4)

The above 6.95 g crude HCl salt of (12-3) was dissolved in 250 mLabsolute EtOH. The solution was purged with dry HCl to nearlysaturation, and then stirred at 80° C. for 36 h. The solvent wasevaporated, and the residue was partitioned between 200 mL EtOAc and 200mL brine. The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (2×100 mL). Thecombined organic layer was dried with Na₂SO₄, acidified with 2 mL ofHOAc, and then passed through a short silica gel column. The column waseluted with 1% HOAc/EtOAc. The combined yellow fraction was evaporatedto give crude (12-4) as a red viscous oil.

5-Hydroxy-4-(4-methylbenzoylamino)-2-nitrobenzoic acid ethyl ester(12-5)

A mixture of 2.26 crude (12-4) and 2.1 g p-toluoyl chloride in 25 mL1,4-dioxane was stirred at 95° C. for 1.5 h. The solvent was removed,and the residue was evaporated twice with EtOH and then evaporated twicewith EtOAc. The final residue was dried at 60° C. under high vacuum togive crude (12-5) as a tan solid.

2-Chloro-3-hydroxy-4-(4-methylbenzoylamino)-6-nitrobenzoic acid ethylester (12-6)

A suspension of 3.35 g (12-5) in 100 mL dioxane was stirred until aclear solution was formed, and then 70 μL diisopropylamine (DIPA) wasadded. The solution was stirred at 50° C. while 1.96 mL SO₂Cl₂ wasadded. The reaction mixture was stirred under argon at 50° C. for 1 h,cooled to room temperature, diluted with 200 mL EtOAc, washed with water(3×100 mL), and dried with MgSO₄. The solvent was evaporated and theresidue was dried at 60° C. under high vacuum to give crude (12-6) as abrown solid.

7-Chloro-5-nitro-2-(p-tolyl)benzoxazole-6-carboxylic acid ethyl ester(12-7)

A mixture of 4.35 g crude (12-6) and 3.93 g Ph₃P in 50 mL dry THF wasstirred at room temperature until a solution was formed. To the solutionwas added 6.7 mL 40% DEAD/toluene, and the mixture was stirred at 70° C.for 1 h. The mixture was diluted with 50 mL EtOH and evaporated. Theresidue was separated by silica gel column chromatography withhexane-EtOAc as eluent to give pure (12-7) as a white solid.

5-Amino-7-chloro-2-(p-tolyl)benzoxazole-6-carboxylic acid ethyl ester(12-8)

A mixture of 1.17 g (12-7), 1.07 g iron powder and 25 mL glacial HOAcwas heated at 60° C. under vigorous stirring for 3 h. The reactionmixture was diluted with 200 mL EtOAc. The slurry was passed through acelite pellet, and the celite was washed with EtOAc. The combinedfiltrates were passed through a short silica gel column, and the columnwas eluted with EtOAc. The combined yellow fractions were evaporated,and the residue was crystallized from hexanes-EtOAc to give pure (12-8)as a bright yellow solid.

2-(5-Amino-7-chloro-2-(p-tolyl)benzoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(12))

A mixture of 7.0 mL 3.0 M MeMgCl/THF and 6 mL THF was protected underargon, and cooled in an ice bath with vigorous stirring. To it was addeddropwise a solution of 886 mg (12-8) in 50 mL THF. After competeaddition, the mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 5 min. To the mixture wasadded 100 mL saturated NH₄Cl with ice bath cooling and vigorousstirring. The organic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer wasextracted with CH₂Cl₂ (DCM) (3×100 mL). The combined organic layers weredried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The crude product was purified bysilica gel column chromatography with MeOH-DCM as eluent and thencrystallized from heptane/DCM to give pure (Compound (12)) as anoff-white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.89 (s, 6H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 4.45 (br, 3H, NH₂and OH), 6.81 (s, 1H), 7.27 (d, 1H, J=8.8 Hz), 8.07 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz).¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 21.7, 31.0, 76.9, 106.2, 113.5, 124.0,126.8, 127.6, 129.6, 140.9, 142.2, 142.9, 145.3, 164.1. LC-MS: 317.0(MH)⁺, 319.0 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 9. Synthesis of2-(5-amino-7-chloro-2-phenylbenzoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (13))4-Benzoylamino-5-hydroxy-2-nitrobenzoic acid ethyl ester (13-1)

A mixture of 2.26 g crude 4-amino-5-hydroxy-2-nitrobenzoic acid ethylester (12-4) and 1.91 g benzoyl chloride in 25 mL 1,4-dioxane wasstirred at 95° C. for 1 h. The solvent was removed and the residue wasevaporated twice with EtOH. The residue was further evaporated twicewith EtOAc, and then was dried at 60° C. under high vacuum to give crude(13-1) as a tan solid.

4-Benzoylamino-2-chloro-3-hydroxy-6-nitrobenzoic acid ethyl ester (13-2)

A suspension of 3.23 g (13-1) in 100 mL dioxane was stirred until aclear solution was formed. To the solution was added 70 μL DIPA, and thesolution was stirred to 50° C., followed by addition of 2.03 mL SO₂Cl₂.The reaction mixture was stirred under argon at 50° C. for 1 h, cooledto room temperature, diluted with 200 mL EtOAc, washed with water (3×100mL), and then dried with MgSO₄. The solvent was evaporated and theresidue was dried at 60° C. under high vacuum to give crude (13-2) as abrown solid.

7-Chloro-5-nitro-2-phenylbenzoxazole-6-carboxylic acid ethyl ester(13-3)

A mixture of crude 3.74 g (13-2) and 3.93 g Ph₃P in 50 mL dry THF wasstirred at room temperature until a solution was formed. To the solutionwas added 6.7 mL 40% DEAD/toluene, and the mixture was stirred at 70° C.for 1 h. The mixture was diluted with EtOH and evaporated. The residuewas separated by silica gel column chromatography with hexane-EtOAc aseluent to give (13-3) as a white solid.

5-Amino-7-chloro-2-phenylbenzoxazole-6-carboxylic acid ethyl ester(13-4)

A mixture of 0.89 g (13-3), 2.0 g iron powder and 25 mL glacial HOAc washeated at 60° C. under vigorous stirring for 1.5 h. The mixture wasdiluted with 200 mL EtOAc. The slurry was passed through a celitepellet, and the celite was washed with EtOAc. The combined filtrateswere pass through a short silica gel column, and the column was elutedwith EtOAc. The combined yellow fractions were evaporated, and theresidue was crystallized from hexanes-EtOAc to give pure (13-4) as abright yellow solid.

2-(5-Amino-7-chloro-2-phenylbenzoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound (13))

A mixture of 6 mL 3.0 M MeMgCl/THF and 6 mL THF was protected underargon, and cooled in an ice bath with vigorous stirring. To it was addeddropwise a solution of 638 mg (13-4) in 50 mL THF. After completeaddition, the mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 5 min. To the mixture wasadded 100 mL saturated NH₄Cl with cooling and vigorous stirring. Theorganic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer was extracted withDCM (3×100 mL). The combined organic layers were dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The crude product was purified by silica gel columnchromatography with MeOH-DCM as eluent, and then crystallized fromheptane-DCM to give pure (Compound (13)) as a pale yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.92 (s, 6H), 4.69 (br, 3H, NH₂ and OH), 6.87(s, 1H), 7.48-7.54 (3H), 8.21 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 31.0,77.0, 106.3, 113.6, 126.8, 126.9, 127.7, 128.9, 131.6, 140.9, 143.0,145.4, 163.9. LC-MS: 303.1 (MH)⁺, 305.0 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 10. Synthesis of2-(6-amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(14)) (2-Chloro-4,6-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropylmethanone (14-1)

A solution of 28.28 g 1-chloro-3,5-dimethoxybenzene and 17.8 mLcyclopropanecarbonyl chloride in 300 mL dry 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) wasprotected with argon, and cooled in a dry ice/acetone bath to −30 to−40° C. To it was added in portions 32.4 g AlCl₃ powder under vigorousstirring. After complete addition, the solution was stirred at −30 to−40° C. for 30 min, and then allowed to warm up to room temperature.After further stirring at room temperature for 20 min, the mixture wasadded onto 1 kg ice under stirring. The mixture was extracted with ether(3×300 mL). The combined organic layers were dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The residue was separated by column chromatography withhexanes/EtOAc as eluent to give pure (14-1) as a white solid.

(2-Chloro-6-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropylmethanone (14-2)

A solution of 13.45 g (14-1) in 100 mL dry DCM was protected with argon,and cooled at −78° C. (dry ice/acetone bath) under stirring. To it wasadded 62 mL 1 M BBr₃/DCM. After complete addition, the mixture wasfurther stirred at −78° C. for 1 h. To the mixture was slowly injected50 mL MeOH under dry ice/acetone bath cooling and vigorous stirring.After complete injection, the mixture was further stirred at −78° C. for10 min, and then allowed to warm up to room temperature. The mixture waspartitioned between 500 mL DCM and 500 mL brine. The organic layer wasseparated, washed with brine (2×100 mL), and then mixed with a solutionof 4.0 g NaOH in 300 mL water. After stirring at room temperature for 1h, the mixture was acidified with 10 mL 12 N aqueous HCl with stirring.The organic layer was separated, dried with MgSO₄, and evaporated. Theresidue was separated by silica gel column chromatography withhexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give (14-2) as a white solid.

(E)- and (Z)-(2-Chloro-6-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropylmethanoneoxime (14-3)

A mixture of 10.38 g (14-2) and 15.95 g NH₂OH.HCl in 150 mL dry pyridinewas protected under argon, and stirred at 80° C. for 20 h. The solventwas evaporated, and the residue was partitioned between 400 mL 0.1 NHCl/brine and 400 mL Et₂O. The organic layer was separated, washed withwater (2×50 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The residue wascrystallized from heptane-EtOAc to give pure (14-3) as a white solid.

(E)- and (Z)-(2-Chloro-6-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropylmethanoneO-acetyl oxime (14-4)

To a suspension of 9.75 g (14-3) in 40 mL EtOAc was added 6.5 mL Ac₂Ounder stirring at room temperature. After complete addition, the mixturewas stirred at room temperature for 1 h. To the mixture was added 50 mLMeOH and 20 mL pyridine, and the mixture was stirred at room temperaturefor 30 min. The solvent was evaporated, and the residue was partitionedbetween 300 mL 1 N HCl/brine and 300 mL EtOAc. The organic layer wasseparated, washed with water (2×50 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporatedto give crude (14-4) as a light brown oil.

4-Chloro-3-cyclopropyl-6-methoxybenzisoxazole (14-5)

Crude (14-4) was protected under argon, and heated in an oil bath at150° C. for 3 h. The crude product was purified by silica gel columnchromatography using hexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give pure (14-5) as alight tan solid.

4-Chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-ol (14-6)

A solution of 7.61 g (14-5) in 75 mL dry DCM was protected under argon,and cooled to −78° C. in a dry ice/acetone bath. To it was addeddropwise 80 mL 1 M BBr₃ in DCM with vigorous stirring. After competeaddition, the mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature, and thenstirred at room temperature for 1 h. The mixture was again cooled to−78° C. in a dry ice/acetone bath. To the mixture was added 20 mL MeOHunder vigorous stirring. After complete addition, the reaction mixturewas allowed to warm to room temperature, and then partitioned between1.5 L brine and 1.5 L EtOAc. The organic layer was separated, and theaqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (2×300 mL). The combined organiclayers were dried with MgSO₄, and passed through a short silica gelcolumn that was eluted with EtOAc. The combined fractions wereevaporated to give pure (14-6) as a light brown oil, which solidifiedupon standing.

4-Chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-yl trifluoromethanesulfonate (14-7)

A mixture of 6.88 g (14-6) and 4 mL pyridine in 50 mL DCM was protectedunder argon and stirred at 0° C. in an ice bath. To it was addeddropwise 6.73 mL Tf₂O with vigorous stirring. After complete addition,the mixture was allowed to warm up to room temperature. After furtherstirring for 10 min at room temperature, the mixture was partitionedbetween 200 mL 1 N HCl and 300 mL DCM. The organic layer was separated,washed sequentially with 100 mL 1 N HCl, 100 mL brine, 100 mL 5% aqueousNaHCO₃ and 100 mL brine, dried with MgSO₄ and then evaporated. Theresidue was purified by column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent to give pure (14-7) as an off-white solid.

tert-Butyl (4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-yl)carbamate (14-8)

A mixture of 8.02 g (14-7), 2.87 g tert-butyl carbamate, 2.37 g tBuONa,1.08 g tris(dibenzylideneacetone) dipalladium(0) (Pd₂dba₃), 2.0 g2-di-tert-butylphosphino-2′,4′,6′-triisopropylbiphenyl (t-butyl Xphos)and 7 g 4 Å molecular sieves in 120 mL dry toluene was purged withargon, and then heated at 110° C. with vigorous stirring for 20 min. Thereaction mixture was diluted with 300 mL EtOAc, and passed through acelite pellet which was then washed with EtOAc. The combined solutionswere evaporated and the residue was separated by silica gel columnchromatography with hexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give crude (14-8) as alight brown oil.

6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole (14-9)

The 4.09 g crude (14-8) was dissolved in 10 mL DCM, followed by additionof 10 mL TFA. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 min.The solvent was removed, and the residue was partitioned between 200 mLDCM and 200 mL 10% NaHCO₃. The organic layer was separated, washed withwater (2×50 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The residue wasseparated by silica gel column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent to give pure (14-9) as a white solid.

5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-ylamine (14-10) and7-bromo-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-ylamine (16-1)

To a solution of 1.96 g (14-9) in 100 mL DCM was added 1.67 g solid NBSin small portions under vigorous stirring at room temperature. Aftercomplete addition, the mixture was further stirred at room temperaturefor 30 min, diluted with 100 mL DCM, washed sequentially with 10%aqueous NaHSO₃ (200 mL) and water (2×200 mL), dried with MgSO₄, andevaporated to give a 1:1 mixture of (14-10) and (16-1) as a tan oil,which solidified on standing.

6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole-5-carbonitrile (14-11) and6-amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole-7-carbonitrile (16-2)

A suspension of 2.72 g of a mixture of (14-10) and (16-1), 1.70 g CuCNand 3.62 g CuI in 25 mL dry DMF was purged with argon, and then heatedat 110° C. in an oil bath with vigorous stirring for 15 h. The mixturewas cooled to room temperature. To it was added 100 mL 30% aqueous NH₃.After stirring at room temperature for 1 h, the mixture was diluted with300 mL water, and extracted with EtOAc (2×500 mL). The combined organiclayers were washed with water (3×200 mL), dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The residue was separated by silica gel columnchromatography with hexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give (14-11) as a lightyellow solid, and (16-2) as a light tan solid.

4-Chloro-5-cyano-3-cyclopropyl-6-(tritylamino)benzisoxazole (14-12)

To a mixture of 435 mg (14-11) and 700 μL TEA in 20 mL DCM was added1.09 g solid trityl chloride in small portions under stirring at roomtemperature. After complete addition, the mixture was further stirred atroom temperature for 30 min. The reaction mixture was diluted with 300mL DCM, washed with water (4×200 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and thenevaporated. The residue was separated by silica gel columnchromatography with DCM as eluent to give pure (14-12) as a white solid.

4-Chloro-3-cyclopropyl-6-(tritylamino)benzisoxazole-5-carbaldehyde(14-13)

A solution of 481 mg (14-12) in 13 mL dry THF was cooled in an ice bathwith stirring. To the solution was added dropwise 7 mL 1 MDIBAL/toluene. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was stirredat 0° C. for 2.5 h. The reaction was quenched with 100 mL 1% aqueoustartaric acid, and the mixture was extracted with DCM (3×100 mL). Theorganic layer was washed with water (3×100 mL), dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The residue was dissolved in DCM and adsorbed onto silicagel. The mixture was air-dried and separated by silica gel columnchromatography with hexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give crude (14-13) as ayellow solid.

1-[4-Chloro-3-cyclopropyl-6-(tritylamino)benzisoxazol-5-yl]ethanol(14-14)

The above 257.8 mg crude (14-13) was dissolved in 10 mL dry THF, and thesolution was added to a mixture of 2.0 mL 3 M MeMgCl/THF and 2 mL dryTHF at 0° C. (ice bath) with stirring. After complete addition, themixture was further stirred at 0° C. for 5 min, and then quenched with100 mL 5% NH₄Cl under ice bath cooling. The mixture was extracted withDCM (3×100 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The residue wasseparated by silica gel column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent to give pure (14-14) as a white solid.

1-[4-Chloro-3-cyclopropyl-6-(tritylamino)benzisoxazol-5-yl]ethanone(14-15)

To a solution of 150.5 mg (14-14) in 20 mL dry DCM was added 271 mgsolid Dess-Martin periodinane(1,1,1-triacetoxy-1,1-dihydro-1,2-benziodoxol-3(1H)-one, DMP) in smallportions at room temperature under vigorous stirring. After completeaddition, the reaction mixture was further stirred at room temperaturefor 10 min. The reaction mixture was diluted with 300 mL DCM, washedwith water (4×200 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The residue wasseparated by silica gel column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent to give pure (14-15) as a pale yellow solid.

1-(6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)ethanone (14-16)

To a solution of 182 mg (14-15) in 20 mL dry DCM was added dropwise 2 mLTFA under stirring at room temperature. The solution was stirred at roomtemperature for 10 min, diluted with 200 mL DCM, washed with water(4×100 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated to give crude (14-16) as awhite solid.

2-(6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(14))

The 174.7 mg crude (14-16) was dissolved in 20 mL dry THF, and thesolution was added dropwise to a well stirred mixture of 2.5 mL 3MMeMgCl/THF and 2 mL THF at 0° C. (ice bath). After complete addition,the mixture was further stirred at 0° C. for 5 min. To it was addeddropwise 100 mL 5% aqueous NH₄Cl under ice bath cooling and stirring.The mixture was extracted with DCM (3×100 mL), dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The crude product was purified by silica gel columnchromatography with MeOH-DCM as eluent and then crystallized fromheptane-DCM to give pure (Compound (14)) as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.10 (m, 2H), 1.20 (m, 2H), 1.91 (s, 6H),2.18 (m, 1H), 4.28 (br, 2H, NH₂), 6.57 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃)δ: 8.68, 9.35, 30.0, 77.4, 97.4, 121.2, 125.1, 133.1, 145.7, 149.3,166.4. LC-MS: 266.9 (MH)⁺, 269.0 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 11. Synthesis of2-(5-amino-7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(15)) Cyclopropanecarboxylic acid methoxymethylamide (15-1)

A suspension of 9.75 g N,O-dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride and 9.7mL pyridine in 200 mL DCM was stirred at room temperature for 10 min,and then cooled in an ice bath with stirring. To the suspension wasadded dropwise a solution of 9.03 mL cyclopropanecarbonyl chloride in 40mL DCM with vigorous stirring. After complete addition, the mixture wasstirred at 0° C. for 30 min, and then at room temperature for 1 h. Thesolution was diluted with 100 mL DCM, washed with brine (3×200 mL), anddried with MgSO₄. The solvent was evaporated, and the residue vacuumdistilled. The fraction collected at 43-45° C./1 mmHg gave (15-1) as acolorless liquid.

2-(3-Chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexamethyldisilazane (15-2)

A solution of 7.3 g 3-chloro-4-fluoroaniline in 100 mL dry THF wasprotected under argon and cooled at −78° C. (dryice/acetone bath). Tothe solution was slowly added 21 mL 2.5 M nBuLi in hexanes with vigorousstirring. After complete addition, the suspension was further stirred at−78° C. for 10 min. To the latter was slowly added 6.65 mLchlorotrimethylsilane (TMSCl) under vigorous stirring. After completeaddition, the mixture was further stirred at −78° C. for 30 min. To thelatter was again added 24 mL 2.5 M nBuLi, followed by 7.65 mL TMSClunder vigorous stirring. The mixture was stirred at −78° C. for 30 min,and then allowed to warm to room temperature. The solvent was removedand the residue was vacuum distilled. The fractions collected below 95°C./1 mmHg were pooled to give (15-2) as a colorless liquid.

(5-Amino-3-chloro-2-fluorophenyl)(cyclopropyl)methanone (15-3)

A solution of 9.11 g (15-2) in 100 mL dry THF was cooled to −78° C. in adry ice/acetone bath under argon. To it was added dropwise 15.7 mL 2.5 MnBuLi in hexanes under vigorous stirring. After complete addition, themixture was stirred at −78° C. for 2 h. To the mixture was added slowly5.2 g (15-1) under stirring. After complete addition, the reactionmixture was stirred at −78° C. for 1 h, and then allowed to warm up toroom temperature. The reaction mixture was poured into 400 mL cold 1:1MeOH/1 N HCl under stirring. After further stirring for 30 min, themixture was extracted with DCM (3×200 mL). The combined organic layerswere dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated to give crude (15-3) as a lightbrown oil.

N-[3-Chloro-5-(cyclopropylcarbonyl)-4-fluorophenyl]acetamide (15-4)

Crude (15-3) (6.09 g) was dissolved in 100 mL DCM. To it were addedsequentially 6 mL acetic anhydride (Ac₂O) and 9.6 mL triethylamine (TEA)with ice bath cooling and vigorous stirring. After complete addition,the reaction mixture was further stirred at room temperature for 1 h,diluted with 200 mL DCM, and washed with 0.1 N HCl (3×200 mL). Theorganic layer was dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. The crude product waspurified by silica gel column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent and then crystallized from hexanes-EtOAc to give pure (15-4) as awhite solid.

(E)- and(Z)—N-{3-Chloro-5-[cyclopropyl(hydroxyimino)methyl]-4-fluorophenyl}acetamide(15-5)

A mixture of 2.28 g (15-4), 3.1 g NH₂OH.HCl, 30 mL pyridine and 30 mLEtOH was stirred at 50° C. for 22 h. EtOH was evaporated, and theresidue was partitioned between 200 mL Et₂O and 200 mL 1 N HCl/brine.The organic layer was separated, washed with water (2×20 mL), dried withMgSO₄ and evaporated to give pure (15-5) as an off-white amorphoussolid.

N-(7-Chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)acetamide (15-6)

A solution of 2.01 g (15-5) in 40 mL dry DMF was protected with argonand stirred with ice bath cooling. To the solution was added in portions1.48 g 60% NaH in mineral oil under vigorous stirring. After completeaddition, the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1.5h, and then was carefully added into a mixture of 300 mL saturatedNaHCO₃ and 300 mL EtOAc under stirring. The organic layer was separated,washed with water (3×50 mL), dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. Theresidue was separated by column chromatography with hexanes-EtOAc aseluent to give pure (15-6) as a white solid.

tert-Butyl acetyl(7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)carbamate(15-7)

A mixture of 789.3 mg (15-6), 808 mg Boc₂O and 38 mg DMAP in 40 mL dryDCM was stirred at room temperature for 1 h. Solvent was evaporated togive crude (15-7) as a white solid.

tert-Butyl (7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-5-yl)carbamate (15-8)

The above crude (15-7) was dissolved in 100 mL MeOH. The solution wasbasified with 0.1 mL 25 wt. % NaOMe/MeOH, and then stirred at roomtemperature for 30 min. To the solution was added 1 g solid NH₄Cl, andthe solvent was evaporated. The residue was partitioned between 300 mL0.1 N HCl/brine and 300 mL EtOAc. The organic layer was separated,washed sequentially with 100 mL 0.1 N HCl/brine, 100 mL water, 100 mLsaturated NaHCO₃ and 100 mL water, dried with MgSO₄ and evaporated. Theresidue was crystallized from heptane-EtOAc to give pure (15-8) as awhite solid.

5-[(tert-Butoxycarbonyl)amino]-7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole-6-carboxylicacid (15-9)

A solution of 770 mg (15-8) in 50 mL dry THF was protected under argon,and stirred with dry ice/acetone bath cooling. To the solution was addeddropwise 5.9 mL 1.7 M tBuLi/pentane under vigorous stirring. Aftercomplete addition, the mixture was further stirred at −78° C. for 5 min.To the latter was added all at once 7.2 g freshly crushed dry ice undervigorous stirring. The mixture was stirred at −78° C. for 5 min, andthen allowed to warm up to room temperature. The reaction mixture waspartitioned between 300 mL 1 N HCl/brine and 300 mL EtOAc. The organiclayer was separated, washed with 100 mL 0.1 N HCl/brine, dried withMgSO₄ and evaporated. The residue was separated by silica gel columnchromatography with hexanes/EtOAc/HOAc as eluent to give (15-9) as anoff-white foam.

Methyl5-[(tert-butoxycarbonyl)amino-7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole-6-carboxylate(15-10)

A solution of 815 mg (15-9) and 5 mL MeOH in 10 mL DCM was stirred withice bath cooling. To the solution was added dropwise 2.31 mL 2 Mtrimethylsilyldiazomethane (TMSCHN₂) in hexanes under stirring. Aftercomplete addition, the solution was stirred at room temperature for 10min and evaporated. The residue was dissolved in 100 mL DCM, and thesolution was passed through a short silica gel column. The column waseluted with MeOH-DCM, and the combined fractions were evaporated to give(15-10) as an off-white solid.

Methyl 5-amino-7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazole-6-carboxylate (15-11)

A solution of 813 mg (15-10) in 10 mL DCM was stirred with ice bathcooling. To it was added dropwise 10 mL TFA with stirring. Aftercomplete addition, the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30min and evaporated. The residue was partitioned between 200 mL saturatedNaHCO₃ and 200 mL EtOAc. The organic layer was separated, washed withwater (2×50 mL), dried with MgSO₄, and evaporated to give (15-11) as ayellow oil, which solidified on standing.

2-(5-Amino-7-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-6-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(15))

A solution of 7.73 mL 3M MeMgCl/THF in 6 mL dry THF was protected underargon and stirred with ice bath cooling. To it was added dropwise asolution of 620 mg (15-11) in 50 mL dry THF under vigorous stirring.After complete addition, the mixture was allowed to warm and thenstirred at room temperature for 1 h. The mixture was added carefullyinto 300 mL saturated aqueous NH₄Cl under stirring and ice bath cooling.The mixture was extracted with DCM (3×100 mL), dried with MgSO₄ andevaporated. The crude product was purified by silica gel columnchromatography with MeOH-DCM as eluent, and then crystallized fromheptane-DCM to give pure (Compound (15)) as an off-white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.10 (m, 2H), 1.15 (m, 2H), 1.91 (s, 6H),2.09 (m, 1H), 4.33 (br, 3H, NH₂ and OH), 6.70 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz,CDCl₃) δ: 7.11, 7.25, 30.7, 77.1, 105.6, 113.7, 120.4, 132.5, 144.4,155.4, 160.5. LC-MS: 267.1 (MH)⁺, 269.1 [(M+2)H]⁺.

Example 12. Synthesis of2-(6-amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-7-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(16)) 1-(6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropyl-benzisoxazol-7-yl)ethanone(16-3)

To a mixture of 636 mg (16-2) and 43 mg CuI was slowly added 8.16 mL 3 MMeMgCl/THF under stirring and ice bath cooling. The suspension wasprotected under argon, and heated at 70° C. in an oil bath for 15 min.The mixture was cooled to 0° C. in an ice bath. To it was added 136 mLMeOH, followed by 2.17 g solid NH₄Cl and 13.6 mL water. The mixture waswarmed to room temperature with stirring to give a clear solution, whichwas adsorbed on silica gel, air-dried and separated by silica gel columnchromatography with hexanes-EtOAc as eluent to give (16-3) as a yellowsolid.

2-(6-Amino-4-chloro-3-cyclopropylbenzisoxazol-7-yl)propan-2-ol (Compound(16))

A mixture of 1.54 mL 3 M MeMgCl/THF and 5 mL dry THF was protected underargon and stirred with ice bath cooling. To it was added a solution of387.1 mg (16-3) in 15 mL dry THF under vigorous stirring. After completeaddition, the solution was further stirred at 0° C. for 20 min. To thesolution was added 100 mL saturated aqueous NH₄Cl with ice bath coolingand vigorous stirring. The mixture was warmed to room temperature andextracted with DCM (3×100 mL). The combined organic layers were driedwith MgSO₄ and evaporated. The crude product was purified by silica gelcolumn chromatography with MeOH-DCM as eluent, and crystallized fromheptane-DCM to give pure (Compound (16)) as a light tan solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 1.12 (m, 2H), 1.18 (m, 2H), 1.78 (s, 6H),2.17 (m, 1H), 4.86 (br, 2H, NH₂), 6.60 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃)δ: 8.81, 9.26, 30.1, 74.1, 112.7, 114.4, 121.8, 131.3, 143.8, 148.6,166.1. LC-MS: 267.0 (MH)⁺, 268.9 [(M+2)H]⁺.

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain usingno more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specificembodiments and methods described herein. Such equivalents are intendedto be encompassed by the scope of the present invention.

All patents, patent applications, and literature references cited hereinare hereby expressly incorporated by reference.

REFERENCES

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1. A method of treating, preventing, or reducing a risk of a disease,disorder, condition, or cosmetic indication in which aldehyde toxicityis implicated in a subject in need thereof, comprising administeringtopically or systemically to the subject a compound comprising a primaryamine, provided that the disease, disorder, or condition is not maculardegeneration or Stargardt disease.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein thedisease, disorder, or condition is an ocular disorder, provided that theocular disorder is not macular degeneration or Stargardt disease.
 3. Themethod of claim 2, wherein the ocular disorder is selected from thegroup consisting of dry eye syndrome, cataracts, keratoconus, bullousand other keratopathy, Fuch's endothelial dystrophy, allergicconjunctivitis, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, conditions associatedwith PRK healing and other corneal healing, conditions associated withtear lipid degradation or lacrimal gland dysfunction, uveitis,scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, and ocular rosacea.
 4. Themethod of claim 3, wherein the ocular disorder is dry eye syndrome. 5.The method of claim 3, wherein the ocular disorder is a conditionassociated with PRK healing and other corneal healing.
 6. The method ofclaim 3, wherein the ocular disorder is selected from the groupconsisting of uveitis, scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome, andocular rosacea.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the ocular disorder isocular rosacea or uveitis.
 8. The method of claim 3, wherein the oculardisorder is selected from the group consisting of keratoconus,cataracts, bullous and other keratopathy, Fuchs' endothelial dystrophy,ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, and allergic conjunctivitis.
 9. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the disease, disorder, or condition is a skindisease, disorder, or condition selected from the group consisting ofpsoriasis, topical (discoid) lupus, contact dermatitis, atopicdermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris,Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis, and the cosmeticindication is selected from the group consisting of solarelastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness, eczema, smoke orirritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and a skin conditionassociated burn or wound.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the skindisease, disorder, or condition is selected from the group consisting ofpsoriasis, scleroderma, topical (discoid) lupus, contact dermatitis,atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiation dermatitis, acnevulgaris, and Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and other ichthyosis.
 11. Themethod of claim 10, wherein the skin disease, disorder, or condition iscontact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, or radiationdermatitis.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the skin disease,disorder, or condition is Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome.
 13. The method ofclaim 9, wherein the cosmetic indication is selected from the groupconsisting of solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness,eczema, smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and askin condition associated burn or wound.
 14. The method of claim 1,wherein the disease, disorder, or condition is a condition associatedwith the toxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents.15. The method of claim 14, wherein the blister agent is sulfur mustard,nitrogen mustard, or phosgene oxime.
 16. The method of claim 14, whereinthe alkali agent is lime, lye, ammonia, or a drain cleaner.
 17. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the disease, disorder, or condition is anautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological disease, or diabetes, metabolic syndrome, or a fibroticdisease.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the disease, disorder, orcondition is selected from the group consisting of lupus, scleroderma,asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoidarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, sepsis, atherosclerosis,ischemic-reperfusion injury, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease,multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
 19. The method ofclaim 17, wherein the fibrotic disease is a renal, hepatic, pulmonary,or cardiac fibrosis.
 20. The method of any one of claims 1 to 19,wherein the compound is a compound of formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: X, Y, and Z areeach independently N, CH, or C(NH₂), provided that one of X, Y, and Z isN; p is 0, 1, 2, or 3; each R_(B) is independently halogen, hydroxyl,carbamoyl, amino, or unsubstituted or substituted aryl; R_(A) is

Q_(a) is C₁-C₆ straight chain alkyl; and R_(a) is unsubstituted orsubstituted C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branched alkyl.
 21. The methodof claim 20, wherein p is
 1. 22. The method of claim 20, wherein R_(A)is


23. The method of claim 20, wherein R_(B) is halogen, hydroxyl,carbamoyl, amino, or aryl.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein R_(B) ishalogen.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein R_(B) is chlorine.
 26. Themethod of claim 20, wherein the compound is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 27. The method of any oneof claims 1 to 19, wherein the compound is a compound of formula (II):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: R_(B1) isunsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branchedalkyl, C₂-C₈ straight chain or C₃-C₈ branched alkenyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy,C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₁-C₆ alkyl-C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, C₁-C₆alkylphenoxy, phenyl, or substituted phenyl; R_(B2) is H, unsubstitutedor substituted C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branched alkyl, phenyl, orsubstituted phenyl; and R_(B3) is H, unsubstituted or substituted C₁-C₆straight chain or branched C₃-C₆ alkyl, or carboxyl.
 28. The method ofclaim 27, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoic acid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methylheptanoicacid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-nonanoic acid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-decanoicacid, 3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dodecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-tridecanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopropyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclobutyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopentyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-cyclohexyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-trifluoromethyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-phenyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(2-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(3-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(2-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(3-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-5-benzyl-hexanoic acid, (S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoicacid, (R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methylhexanoic acid,(3R,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,(3R,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid MP;(3S,4S)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid,(3R,4R)-3-aminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid MP;3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-hexanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-heptanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-octanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-nonanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-isopropyl-decanoic acid,3-aminomethyl-4-phenyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methoxy-hexanoic acid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-ethoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-propoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-isopropoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-tert-butoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-fluoromethoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-phenoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-hydroxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-methoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-ethoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-propoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-isopropoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-tert-butoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-fluoromethoxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenoxy-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(4-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl6-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(2-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-hexanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl 6-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-benzyloxy-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-hydroxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-methoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-ethoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-propoxy-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-isopropoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-tert-butoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-fluoromethoxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-ethoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3,3,3-trifluoro-propoxy)-heptanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-benzyloxy-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenoxy-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-chloro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-methoxy-phenoxy)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(4-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(2-trifluoromethyl-phenoxy)-heptanoicacid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(4-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(3-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-(2-nitro-phenoxy)-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid, (3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-chloro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid, (3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid, (3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-7-enoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-8-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-6-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-oct-6-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-6-enoic acid, (E)-(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-6-enoic acid, (E)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-7-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-non-7-enoic acid,(Z)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dec-7-enoic acid,(E)-(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undec-7-enoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5,6,6-trimethyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5,6-dimethyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopropyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclobutyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclopentyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-cyclohexyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-decanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-undecanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-dodecanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,9-dimethyl-decanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,7-dimethyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5,8-dimethyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid, (3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-6-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-7-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclopropyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclobutyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclopentyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-cyclohexyl-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-6-fluoro-5-methyl-hexanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7-fluoro-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8-fluoro-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-9-fluoro-5-methyl-nonanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-7,7,7-trifluoro-5-methyl-heptanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-8,8,8-trifluoro-5-methyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-8-phenyl-octanoic acid,(3S,5S)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-6-phenyl-hexanoic acid, and(3S,5R)-3-aminomethyl-5-methyl-7-phenyl-heptanoic acid, or apharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 29. The method of claim 28,wherein the compound is (S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid or(R)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, or a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt or racemic mixture thereof.
 30. The method of any one ofclaims 1 to 19, wherein the compound is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 31. The method of any oneof claims 1 to 19, wherein the compound is a compound of one of formula(IIIa)-(IIIf):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: each R₀ isindependently halogen, CF₂H, CF₃, R_(b2), OR_(b1), COOR_(b1),CON(R_(b1))₂, N(R_(b2))₂, NR_(b1)COR_(b1), NR_(b1)COOR_(b2),NR_(b1)CON(R_(b1))₂, NR_(b1)SO₂R_(b2), SO₂R_(b2), SO₂N(R_(b1))₂,unsubstituted phenyl, or phenyl substituted with 1-3 substituentsindependently selected from F, Cl, CF₂H, CF₃, OR_(b1), and R_(b2), ortwo such substituents, together with the carbon atoms of the phenylrings to which they are attached, form a five- or six-membered ringhaving a structure selected from

wherein “*” denotes the positions of the carbon atoms to which thesubstituents are attached on the phenyl ring, or alternatively, whenattached to adjacent atoms, any two R₀, together with the atoms to whichthey are attached, form a five- or six-membered ring having a structureselected from

wherein “*” denotes the positions of the atoms to which the two R₀ areattached, or each R_(b1) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain orC₃-C₆ branched alkyl, or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl; each R_(b2) is independentlyC₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branched alkyl, or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl; eachR_(b3) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branched alkyl,or halogen; each Q_(b) is independently H, C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆branched alkyl, or C₁-C₆ straight chain or C₃-C₆ branched alkylsubstituted with 1-6 F, or both Q_(b), together with the carbon atom towhich they are attached, form a C₃-C₆ carbocycle or a saturatedheterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which both Q_(b)are attached, wherein the carbocycle or the heterocycle is optionallysubstituted with one or more R_(b3); and n is 0, 1, 2, or
 3. 32. Themethod of claim 31, wherein the compound is selected from the groupconsisting of:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 33. The method of claim32, wherein the compound is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 34. The method of any oneof claims 1 to 19, wherein the compound is a compound of formula (IV):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A′ and R′,together with the two adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached,form a five-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen atom andone oxygen atom, wherein the heteroaryl ring is substituted with R_(C)′,wherein “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”, and “6” denote the points of attachmentof the heteroaryl ring to the phenyl ring, provided that when theheteroaryl ring is

then R_(C1) is C(Q_(C))₂OH, R_(C2) is absent, and R_(C)′ is absent, andthat when the heteroaryl ring is

then R_(C1) is absent, R_(C2) is NH₂, and R_(C)′ is absent; R_(C1) isC(Q_(C))₂OH, or R_(C1) is absent when A′ and R′, together with the twoadjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

R_(C2) is NH₂, or R_(C2) is absent when A′ and R′, together with the twoadjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form

each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or twoQ_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form aC₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached; R_(C)′ is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted withC₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆ alkoxy, or R_(C)′ is absent when A′ and R′,together with the two adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached,form

q is 0, 1, or 2, provided that when R_(C)′ is phenyl, q is not 0; andeach T is independently halogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substitutedwith C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano.
 35. The method ofclaim 34, wherein the compound is a compound of formula (IVa):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A and R,together with the two adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached,form a five-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen atom andone oxygen atom, wherein the heteroaryl ring is substituted with R_(C);R_(C) is C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl substituted with C₁-C₆ alkyl, or C₁-C₆alkoxy; q₁ is 1 or 2; each T₁ is independently halogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl,C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, orcyano; and each Q_(C) is independently C₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,or two Q_(C), together with the carbon atom to which they are attached,form a C₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or a saturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached.
 36. The method of claim 34, wherein the compound isa compound of formula (IVb):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: one of R_(U) andR_(Z) is C(Q_(C))₂OH, and the other is NH₂; each Q_(C) is independentlyC₁-C₆ alkyl or C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or two Q_(C), together with the carbonatom to which they are attached, form a C₃-C₆ carbocyclic ring or asaturated heterocycle selected from

wherein “*” denotes the position of the carbon atom to which the twoQ_(C) are attached; q₂ is 0, 1, or 2; and each T₂ is independentlyhalogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl substituted with C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl,C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, or cyano.
 37. The method of claim 34, wherein thecompound is a compound selected from the group consisting of:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 38. The compound of claim37, wherein the compound is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 39. A method of treating,preventing, or reducing a risk of a disease, disorder, or condition inwhich aldehyde toxicity is implicated in a subject in need thereof,comprising administering topically or systemically to the subject acompound selected from the group consisting of:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the disease,disorder, or condition is selected from the group consisting of: anocular disorder selected from the group consisting of dry eye syndrome,cataracts, keratoconus, bullous and other keratopathy, Fuch'sendothelial dystrophy, allergic conjunctivitis, ocular cicatricialpemphigoid, conditions associated with PRK healing and other cornealhealing, conditions associated with tear lipid degradation or lacrimalgland dysfunction, uveitis, scleritis, ocular Stevens Johnson Syndrome,and ocular rosacea, a skin disease, disorder, or condition selected fromthe group consisting of psoriasis, topical (discoid) lupus, contactdermatitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, radiationdermatitis, acne vulgaris, Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and otherichthyosis, and a cosmetic indication selected from the group consistingof solar elastosis/wrinkles, skin tone firmness, puffiness, eczema,smoke or irritant induced skin changes, dermal incision, and a skincondition associated burn or wound, a condition associated with thetoxic effects of blister agents or burns from alkali agents, and anautoimmune, immune-mediated, inflammatory, cardiovascular, orneurological disease, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and a fibroticdisease.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the compound is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 41. Use of a compoundcomprising a primary amine in the manufacture of a medicament for thetreatment, prevention, or reduction of a risk of a disease, disorder,condition, or a cosmetic indication in which aldehyde toxicity isimplicated in a subject, provided that the disease, disorder orcondition is not macular degeneration or Stargardt disease.
 42. Use of acompound comprising a primary amine in treating, preventing, or reducinga risk of a disease, disorder, condition, or a cosmetic indication inwhich aldehyde toxicity is implicated in a subject, provided that thedisease, disorder or condition is not macular degeneration or Stargardtdisease.